1750 – 1914 CE
The Modern Era
The Age of Industrial Revolutions
The Age of Atlantic Revolutions
The Age of Nationalism
The 2nd Age of Imperialism
The Age of European Hegemony
The Scramble for Africa
Diverse Interpretations
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Change: Give Up the Old Ways for New Ways
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Modernization or Westernization?
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Dependency Theory
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Marxist Theory
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Improved economic systems
Technological Revolution
Social Changes including more rights for women
An increasing emphasis on secularization
Democratic government
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How to Modernize without Westernizing
Most non-European nations wanted to modernize
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Developing nations are economically dependent on developed nations
Developed nations drain resources from developing nations
Developing nations export agricultural products, raw minerals, labor
Developing nations import finished products
Dependency inherent in capitalism
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Nations which adopt socialism do not need to westernize, be dependent
INDUSTRIALIZATION
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Beginnings
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Capitalization came from Caribbean sugar profits
1750 – 1820s: Began in Great Britain
1800 – 1850: Spread to France, Belgium, Germany, United States
1850 – 1914: Spread to Russia, Japan, Austria (Czech lands)
Impact was Global
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Massive Growth of Global Trade
• Imports of raw minerals and materials
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Cottons
Fuels
Iron
• Export of finished goods
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Labor markets became global
• Slave Trade from 1750 to 1820 more or less
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Three Slave Trades
Atlantic was largest; Indian Ocean last to end
• Immigration to Americas in search of work
• Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese immigrated to work plantations
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Indentured Servitude, Tenant Farming, Sharecropping
A 2ND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Capitalization of the Industrial Revolution
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Sugar production was highly labor intensive, capital intensive
Caribbean generated millions in profit, deposited in banks
British inventors, industrialists could easily borrow money
Preceded Industrial Revolution by about 50 years
• 2nd Agricultural Revolution
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In UK: Experimentation with new crops, animal breeding
Enclosure movements
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Larger, wealthier landowners enclose public lands
Force smaller farmers off their land
Increased efficiency
Forced smaller farmers off land, to cities looking for work
Improved farming techniques
• Mechanization of Agriculture
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Industrial technologies applied to farming
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Most pronounced in USA, Canada
POPULATION
INCREASE
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1800
1850
1900
Europe
150
206
291
Russia
37
60
111
Africa
90
95
120
Between 1700 – 1800
Asia
602
749
937
• Rose to 190 million
North America
16
39
106
Population Explosion
South America
9
20
38
Oceania
2
2
6
• European population
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• Due to increase in birth rate
• Decline in death rate
• Birth rate exceeds death rate
• Sanitary Conditions
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Medical care improved
Nutrition improved
Sanitation improved
• Life Expectancy in developing nations rose
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Europeans introduced medical, sanitary practices abroad
IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY
• New sources of power, energy
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Muscle power replaced by machines
• Human labor, animal power
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Steam power uses coal
Later electricity due to natural gas, oil
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Mechanization of production
Required concentration of labor in one place
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Inventions applied to other fields
Entrepreneurship rewarded by European societies
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Concentrated in power (steam), transportation
Mechanization of clothing production
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Concentrated in chemicals, electricity, communications
• Factory System
• Success in one area fueled interest in others
• 1st Industrial Revolution: 1780 – 1850
• 2nd Industrial Revolution: 1870 – 1914
OTHER RELATED REVOLUTIONS
• Transportation Revolution
• Steam ships
• Railroads
• Communications Revolution
• Telegraph
• Trans-Oceanic Cables
• Rise of Mass Newspapers
• Urbanization as Revolution
• Centers of commerce, industry
• Attracted population to jobs
• Rise of the Middle Class, Professionals
• 2nd Scientific Revolution
• Imperialism as Revolution
SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
• Rate of spread dependent on other factors
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How supportive of industry was society?
How supportive of industry was the government?
• Wars had a tendency to mandate industrialization
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French Revolution, Napoleon helped UK
Crimean War fueled changes in Russia favoring industry
Germany, France, Russia modernized out of defense needs
Civil War impacted US: factories, railroads
Japan forcibly opened by Perry, Meiji Restoration follows
• Trade and Imperialism spread industry
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Europe, Japan needed raw materials, sought them abroad
Trade flourished as all nations involved in trade
Asia, Africa, Latin America were sources of raw materials
Many Europeans built factors abroad in colonies
Some empires began to train a local native technical class
THE PROCESS
• Factories Built
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Near access to ports, power, workers
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From countryside to city
Due to poor harvests, too many to feed
Too little land to work
Allure of city life away from farm
Increased urbanization
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Factory managers, shop owners
Professionals such as lawyers, accountants, technocrats
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Radicalization of workers including rise of unions, welfare systems
Radicalization of some political ideologies: Socialism, Marxism
Calls for reform including political and social
• Shift of people
• Middle Class arose
• Brutal working conditions
• Reactions – Call for Reforms
RESPONSES TO INDUSTRIALIZATION
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Reform Movements
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Socialism
• Utopianism sought ideal solutions
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Work with state, factory owners
• Marxism
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Class struggle natural, instrument of change
State always serves those with money
Rich (bourgeoisie) get richer, poor (proletariat) get poorer
Change only can come about as a violent revolution
Successful revolution would establish workers’ paradise
• Communism or Bolshevism
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Marxism was basis but needed a revolutionary party to lead
Conditions do not have to be right for a revolution, make one!
• Reform Socialism
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Change through ballot box, elections: does not have to be violent
• Trade Unionism
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Workers seek to redress grievances through collective action, strikes
State Initiated Reforms
• Often called Liberalism
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Increase suffrage, written constitutions
Suffrage limited however to upper middle class, those who had property, were educated
• Reform diffused possibilities of revolt: expand electorate, social insurance
GENDER ISSUES
• Changes
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Poor women
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Upper class women
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Middle Class housewives
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Colonies and Women
• had to migrate to cities for work
• Worked in factories, brought in a second income
• Sweatshop industries became common
• More wealth, more servants to manage
• Less power outside home than in previous eras
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A new class has a new group of women
Tended to imitate upper class moral standards, lifestyles
Cult of Domesticity, Victorian Age of Women encouraged
But some women could now get university educations
Women became active in some reform movements
• European women had great influence abroad, set a standard for others
• Native women acquired some of same roles of Middle Class housewives
• Continuities
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Women still had family responsibilities
Society was still patriarchal
WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE
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Abolition preceded women’s suffrage
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Women very involved in abolition movements
• Suffrage took a second place to abolition
• Women became involved in other reform movements: temperance, Progressives
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Seneca Falls Declaration in 1848
• Frederick Douglass attended as delegate
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A Slow Process – Two Steps Forward, One Back
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Role of Enlightenment
• Women ran salons, fostered ntellectual freedom
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French Revolution
• Women granted full rights and vote until Napoleon
• Olympia de Gouges, Mary Wollstonecraft
• Napoleon took back gains, no vote until 1944
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In UK, US –
• Reforms, progressive movements met resistance
• World War I in UK, US won women the vote, rights
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Africa, Asia, Middle East gave women vote as part of decolonization
Latin America, Russia, China, Japan: depended on other factors
Socialism, Communism often granted women the vote for first time
ABOLITIONS, EMANCIPATIONS
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Abolition of the Slave Trade, Slavery
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Calls for its abolition
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Industry was not compatible with slavery
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Religious groups were instrumental: Methodists, Quakers
UK was the leader in the movement to abolish both
Enlightenment, French Revolution began process
Abolished in Americas as part of national independence processes
Slaves had no reason to work hard, no tendency to innovate, experiment
Factories could not use slaves as they were too expensive
US, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Brazil were last American nations to abolish slavery
Emancipation of Russian Serfs
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Reasons
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Rising violence and rebellion amongst serfs
Serfs bound to land, had no reason to work harder for someone else
Russian needed workers in factories
Russia lacked an internal market, serfs were potential customers
Russia lost Crimean War, reformers blamed loss on backwardness
Emancipation of 1861
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Serfs were free, no longer bound to land, now could work elsewhere
Reality: serfs became tenant farmers, indentured labor for landlords
Reality: no land reform – serfs got the worse land, could not pay taxes
IMAGES OF
ABOLITION
MOVEMENTS
• Exchanges of Ideas and Goods
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Increased contacts made this inevitable
Modernization came with a Western bias
• Modernization often carried with it westernization
• Popular Movements
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Rural to Urban Migration throughout world
Immigration
• European immigration to Americas between 35-50 million
• European population transformed Americas, Oceania
• African Slave Trade not abolished until early 1800s
• Africans transported to Americas but also SW Asia, Indian Ocean
• Substitute Labor for Plantations
• Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese filled need
• Often agricultural labor but small business owners, wives followed
• Settlement of frontiers
• Russians, Americans, Chinese, Boer Afrikaaners, Brazilians, Argentines
STATE STRUCTURES: NATIONALISM
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Previous State Structures
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Decentralized
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Feudal Monarchy
Aristocratic privilege, vassals, feudal lords, hierarchy
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Divine Right Monarchy and Absolute Monarchy
Loyalty to one man, centralized state apparatus, elites
Centralized
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Rise of Nationalism
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Reactions
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Burgeoning European nationalisms
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European Example Copied Abroad
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Loyalty to the state, a national consciousness
Strong ideology amongst middle classes but spread to all classes
Fueled by French Revolution, Napoleon: nationalism spread
Nationalism threatens multi-national empires: Austria, Russia, Ottoman
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Congress of Vienna opposed nationalism
Balance of Power: Great powers manage change, prevent change
Restored monarchs to thrones, redrew national boundaries
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Unite one ethnic group under an independent ethnic state
Germany: Prussia and Bismarck united Germany in 1870
Italy: Sardinia and Cavour united Italy in 1860-1870
Pan-Slavism, Austro-Slavism, or Independence
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India: Sepoy Rebellion, Indian National Congress, African National Congress
China, Japan
Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam
Young Turks of Ottoman Empire, Persia
Mexico
STAGES OF POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
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The Stage is Set
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State is economically weak, government is ineffective
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New ideas arise, new groups arise to challenge status-quo, intellectual movements influence change
Old Regime Loses Control
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Old elites attempt to reassert privileges
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Some short term event sparks a conflict, disaster rallies forces who oppose old elites
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Government too divided and weak to suppress revolt
Moderate Phase of the Revolution
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Moderates come to power, initiate changes
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Electorate expanded, constitution liberalized, some reforms initiated
Reaction to the Moderates Arise
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Moderates enact only limited reforms
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Radicals mobilize their supporters demanding more extensive reforms
Radicals Seize Control
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Radicals take control of state and revolution
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Radicals enact sweeping changes, eliminate old institutions completely
Radical Reign of Terror
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Foreign, domestic opposition arises to challenge radicals
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Radicals react, remove opponents, seek to institutionalize, spread their ideology
Moderate Return
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Moderates who come to represent the majority remove radicals
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End the most radical reforms, return privileges to many groups, lose contact with people
Rise of a Strong Leader or Authoritarianism
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Usually a military leader arises to oppose moderates
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Seizes control of state, institutionalizes revolution, revolution ends
REVOLUTIONS 1750 – 1914
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American Revolution 1776 – 1783
French Revolution 1789 – 1799
Haitian Revolution 1793 – 1802
Latin American Revolutions 1810 – 1822
Mehmet Ali in Egypt, 1820s
European Revolutions 1820s – 1848
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Meiji Restoration (Japan) 1867
Young Turks (Ottoman Empire) 1908 – 1920s
1st Iranian Revolution 1905
1st Russian Revolution 1905
Mexican Revolution 1910 – 1920
Chinese Revolution 1911 – 1912
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Belgium revolts from Netherlands
Greece revolts from Ottoman Empire
French Revolutions in 1830 and 1848
European Revolutions in 1848: Germany, Italy, Central Europe
LATIN AMERICA
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Stages
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Result
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Many newly independent nations
Mexico: Grito de Dolores, Fr. Hidalgo & Morelos, Iturbide
South America: Simon Bolivar (North), Jose de San Martin (Central)
Brazil: Different – peaceful split from Portugal, new ruler becomes emperor
Haiti: Different – a slave revolt, rebellion led to independence
After Independence
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Enlightenment, US Revolution, French Revolution influences creoles
Creoles feel marginalized by peninsulares, mother countries’ government
French Revolution, Napoleon occupy Iberia, make changes which creoles, peninsulares hate
Colonies left on their own and begin to make decisions without benefit of mother country
Creoles lead independence movements, form militias, resist return of Spain
Civil wars, turmoil, suffering followed as creoles battle Spain for control
Conservatives take control of new states after independence
Life for majority of people (mestizos, mulattos, Blacks, Indians) little changed, marginalized
Societies remained largely casted
Small powerful elite of creole families ruled independent states
Church is part of the government structure; assists governing elite – rise of anti-clericalism
Rule by military strongmen called caudillos becomes common; armies turn on people
Struggle between liberals and conservatives, centrists and federalists to define state structures
Developments limited to exportable goods, industries and most assets controlled by foreigners
Heavy British, American investment in resources leads to Western financial control
Standouts: Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile
WESTERN HEGEMONY
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Continuity
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Change
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Prior to 1750
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Change Begins
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By 1800
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European continued economic dominance of world
European empires continued to exist
Persistence of social norms in most areas resisting change
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Europeans expanded dominance of world to Africa, Asia
Europeans became industrial, commercial center of world
Europeans lost political control of the Americas
US, Japan, Germany join great powers
Westernization, modernization impacts mass society
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Asians, Africans controlled own countries
Europeans allowed trading rights, bases but limited influence
Internal trade left to locals, Asian states licensed groups to trade
Europeans controlled trans-Oceanic trade
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Dutch, English, French challenge Spain, Portugal
Spain, Portugal relied on royal monopolies
Newcomers used privately owned companies, initiative
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Between 1789-1820, 1st European colonial empires collapsed
Only viable European colonial empire was Great Britain
Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French had minor possessions
EUROPE CARVES UP THE
WORLD
NEW ACTORS
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United States: Liberal democracy with expanding suffrage but no rights for women, blacks
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Germany: Autocratic democracy struggling with socialism, industrialization
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Russian Empire: autocratic state plagued by struggle for reform, rights; dominated by elite
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Japan: From Shogunate to Constitutional Monarch dominated by elite industries, military
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1750 – 13 British Colonies with strong traditions of self-rule
1800 – Successful revolution, new government; Mississippi border, Manifest Destiny, Monroe Doctrine
1850 – War With Mexico Acquires West but country at height of sectionalism over slavery
1875 – Fought Civil War, Slavery Ended; US Industrial Power as #3 in world
1914 – US acquires an empire in Pacific, Caribbean; Mass Immigration; Open Door Policy
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1750 – 400+ states, Prussia and Austria were the largest
1800 – Germany was a dependent of Napoleon, whose rule created German nationalism
1850 – Industrial Revolution, nationalism gripped Germany; democracy was clear loser in 1848
1875 – Prussia had united Germany, humiliated France and Austria, created an autocratic empire
1914 – Germany was the #2 industrial power in world, #2 navy, #1 army
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1750 – New great power having defeated Sweden, Ottoman Empire
1800 – One of two free great powers left to oppose Napoleon, revolution, liberalism
1850 – Europe’s policeman, opposed revolution, nationalism, liberalism
1875 – Had lost Crimean War; emancipation of serfs had not helped; spreading radicalism, industry
1914 – 1905 Revolution by workers, soviets crushed; reforms limited; internally very weak
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1750 – Still isolated internationally with only one yearly contact through Nagasaki; Dutch Learning
1800 – Shogun weakening but Dutch learning had spread
1854 – US forces Japan to end isolation, open ports
1875 – Meiji Restoration had overthrown Shogun; massive industrialization, modernization
1904 – Had built modern army, navy: had defeated China, Russia, annexed Ryuykus
1914 – Only non-European great power; had alliance with UK, annexed Korea, interested in China
DIPLOMACY
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Rise of Diplomacy and Diplomats
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Alliances
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Temporary alliances of states with similar objectives not new
Diplomatic Revolution of 1750s: Rise of Prussia, Great Britain
Grand Alliance /Holy Alliance against France, Revolution
Balance of Power
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Renaissance saw rise of diplomats as a class, institution
Rules of conduct set: extraterritoriality of diplomats, embassies
Enlightenment: growth of works on international law, treaties
No one state should dominate; states team up to restore balance
War is failed diplomacy – use force to achieve objectives
Alliance Systems
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Germany upset balance in 1870; France humiliated
Germany and France become the center of two competing alliances
• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy (Ottoman Empire)
• Triple Entente: France, Russia, United Kingdom (Japan)
HOW ALLIANCES WORK
IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM
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Imperialism
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Powerful nations extend control over less-powerful nations
Control can be direct, indirect, political, economic, social
1492-1820 is an age of colonialism
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1830-1914 is an age of imperialism
• Colonialism tends towards recreating European cultures and settler colonies
• Imperialism tends towards exploiting other nations to benefit the mother country
• Less concern with making the colony a settler colony
Spurred By
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Nationalism and nationalist competition
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Desire to maintain balance of power
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Industrial Revolution
• Desire for prestige, military power, glory
• France defeated by Germany in 1870 sought balance in colonies
• Russia, Germany seek to rival UK in Asia, acquire colonies
• Seek markets for your goods
• Seek sources for raw materials especially fuels
Results Of
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Increased life expectancy, literacy
Destruction of traditional patterns of life to support European systems
Imposition of new values, customs including religious systems
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIONS
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Types
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Direct
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Indirect
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Favored by France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Japan
Replace local leaders with men sent out by mother countries
Introduce own laws, law systems, courts, governmental bodies
Did not believe locals were capable of governing themselves
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Favored by UK, US, Netherlands
Rule through existing elites, institutions
Change as few customs, traditions as possible
Senior officials appointed by mother country
Establish schools to educate young men for civil service jobs
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Dominions
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The United States
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Japan
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Settler colonies granted virtual independence, self-rule
Applies to Canada, Australia, NZ, South Africa
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Beginning in 1867, US expanded into Pacific – Wake Island, Alaska
In 1898 acquired Hawaii, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Samoa
Expansion due in large part to industrialization, nationalism, navy
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Began in 1870s with annexation of Ryuku Islands
Led to conflicts with China (1894), Russia (1904)
Ended with annexation of Taiwan, Korea, Pacific Islands, assets in China
OTHER IMPERIALISMS
• Economic Imperialism
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Actually described by Marx, Lenin
Involved dominance of industry, finance
Let to competitions between national firms
US, UK, Germany were three greatest rivals to 1914
Examples
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US loan money, invested in Mexico, Central America, Caribbean
UK invested heavily in South America
Germany invested heavily in Eastern Europe, Balkans, Turkey
France invested heavily in Russia
Europeans built Latin American infrastructure to help exports
• Racism and Social Darwinism
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Theory of Evolution and Darwin led to this development
Natural selection, survival of fittest applied to imperialism
• Social Darwinism theorized that certain nations, races were superior
• The inferior races should be dominated by superior, civilized nations
LOCAL REACTIONS: REFORM, RESIST, REBEL
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Ottoman Empire
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Causes
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Local Reaction
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Turks fight back, seek support of UK, France
Turkey seeks to modernize: Tanzimat Reforms, Young Turk Movement
Outcome
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Russia attacks Ottomans, supports Pan-Slavic nationalism
Egypt begins to modernize, break away
Ottoman Empire seen as the “sick man of Europe”
Turks loose control of Balkans, North Africa, Caucasus
India
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Causes
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Local Reaction
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Europeans vie for control of Indian Ocean trade, ports under the Mughals
European rivalry spills over into India
British East India Company builds a trading empire in India
Initially none from Mughals but local princes try to oppose British, ally with French
Marathas, Sikhs, others oppose British expansion
Sepoy Rebellion on 1857 – Indian Muslims and Hindus join forces against British
Outcome
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British government takes control of the East India Company, territory
Creates the Empire of India with Queen Victoria as the Empress
Allows local princes to control local affairs (UK controls army, diplomacy, national politics)
LOCAL REACTIONS: REFORM, RESIST, REBEL
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Japan
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Causes
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Local Reaction
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Shogun deposed, Emperor returned to power under Meiji Restoration in 1867
Meiji Restoration modernizes, industrializes, but only moderately westernizes 1867 - 1912
Outcome
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US under Commodore Perry forces Japan to open its ports to the West in 1854
Japan sees what has happened in China
Japan becomes a major power able to resist Europeans, defeats Russians in 1904 war
Annexes islands, parts of China, Korea and creates its own empire (1877 – 1910)
China
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Causes
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Local Reaction
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Foreign merchants trade even if opium trade is forbidden; Western influence continues to grow
Discontent with Manchu (Qing) Dynasty
Western-educated, intellectuals seek reforms but conservatives, Confucians block reforms
Taiping Rebellion: Christian messianic traditions blend with Confucianism, poor peasants rebel
Boxer Rebellion against Western influence supported by Dowager Empress, fails
Outcome
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UK forces China to open ports to trade, westerners (Opium Wars, Treaty Ports, Extraterritoriality)
Other powers partition China into treaty ports, spheres of influence (Sino-Japanese War)
1911 Revolution overthrows the Manchu Dynasty
ASIA
1789
&
1914
LOCAL REACTIONS: REFORM, RESIST, REBEL
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Africa
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Egypt
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Mehmet Ali: An Albanian officer in Turkish Army comes to control Egypt
Seeks to modern country on European model: army, industry, society
Greatest resistance comes from Europeans who defeat his navy, limit his regime, influence
East Africa
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The Sudan
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Ethiopia
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Sudan controlled by a corrupt Turkish-Egyptian regime
Man claiming to be the Madhi or promised one preceding the end of time appears, rallies region
Preaches a reformed, puritanical Islam stripped of western ideas, concepts
Defeats Egyptian force led by a British general
British re-invade in 1898 and crush regime, rule Sudan as a co-dominion with Egypt
Italy seeks to create an empire in East Africa, occupies Eritrea, Somalia; advanced against Ethiopia
Ethiopia under Menelik II had modernized, acquired western arms – defeats Italy
Southern Africa
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The Zulus
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Rise of Shaka Zulu in early 1800s creates a Zulu Empire, produces Mkfane or dispersal of Bantu tribes
Zulus threaten British settlers in Natal Province and Boer Republics, clash with British
Britain defeats, annexes Zululand
The Boers
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Great Britain acquired Capetown Colony during Napoleonic Wars
Increasing English influence, immigration drove Boers (Dutch farmers) to migrate inland
Boers set up Afrikaaner Republics independent of British
Gold/diamonds discovered, which British covet; Anglo-Boer War: British attack, defeat, annex Boer Republics
South Africa created in 1910
AFRICA 1830 & 1914
SOUTHEAST ASIA
INTELLECTUAL CHANGES
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Arts: Art, Music, and Literature
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Philosophy
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Classicism: Idealization of the Past (Greeks, Romans)
Romanticism: Idealization of nation, national culture
Realism: look at society as it is, not idealized
Impressionism as reaction to, fascination with industrialization
Post-Impressionism begins movement towards emotions
Materialism
Idealism
Progressivism
Sciences
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Physics: Einstein, Currie, Roentgen
Psychology as a result of Freud’s studies
Biology and Genetics: Mendel, Darwin
Medicine: Jenner, Pasteur, Koch, Lister, Walter Reed
ESSAYS
• The prompts which follow can be
either a Change/Continuity over
Time essay or Compare/Contrast
essay.
• The same prompts with documents
become DBQ essays.
INDUSTRIALIZATION
• Compare the causes and phases on the Industrial Revolution
in Great Britain or the United States with Russia or Japan.
• Compare industrial development in Brazil or South America
with economic developments in China, India, or Russia.
• Compare and contrast the importance of trade and
international economic relations on any two civilizations, one
European and one non-European. Non-European can include
Eastern Europe specifically Austria-Hungary and Russia. NonEuropean nations should include the Ottoman Empire,
Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, India, Egypt, China, and Japan.
REVOLUTIONS
• Compare the American or French Revolution with one
of these revolutions: Haiti 1798; Latin American 1820;
Mehmet Ali in Egypt 1822; Mexico 1911, Russia 1905;
Taiping Rebellion 1850; China 1911; or Iran 1910.
• Compare nationalism in the following pairs: China and
Japan, Egypt and Italy, Pan-Africanism and the Indian
National Congress
• Compare the process of modernization as opposed to
Westernization in any two non-European nations in the
19th or 20th century.
IMPERIALISM & RESPONSE
• Compare and contrast the reactions and responses of any two
of these states to Western influence and imperialism: China,
Japan, Ottoman Empire, Southeast Asia, and India.
• Compare nationalism and nationalist movements in any two of
these states: Cuba, Philippines, China, Japan, Ottoman Empire,
Egypt, India, and Vietnam.
• Compare forms of Western intervention in any two regions:
Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia.
• Compare and contrast any two colonial empires including
methods of government, economic development, and social
changes: France, Great Britain, United States, Russia, and
Japan.
SOCIAL, MOVEMENTS
• Compare the roles of upper class/aristocratic women
with women from the working, peasant, and poor classes
in Western Europe and any one non-Western nation.
• Compare the spread of Christianity and Islam in SubSaharan Africa.
• Compare the movement by populaces to settle interior
lands in any two frontier societies: United States, Russia,
Brazil, South Africa, Australia, and China.
• Compare the process and problems of urbanization in
any two of these cities: Tokyo, London, Paris, New York,
Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, Bombay, Cairo,
Constantinople, and Mexico City.