Chapter One:
The Science of Psychology
Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Tenacity
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Tenacity

Refers to the continued presentation of a particular bit of
information. When we hear a statement repeated a sufficient
number of times, we have a tendency to accept it as being true.
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Authority
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Authority

Acceptance of knowledge from an authority; taking someone’s
word for it; also depends on the credibility of the person presenting
the information.
Psychological Detective

What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge
through tenacity and authority?
Psychological Detective

What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge
through tenacity and authority?

You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is
true.
Psychological Detective

What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge
through tenacity and authority?


You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is
true.
The inability or unwillingness of tenacity and authority to change in
the face of contradictory evidence.
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Experience
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Experience

Experiencing something firsthand or directly.
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Experience


Experiencing something firsthand or directly.
Is all experience perfectly accurate?
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Reason and Logic
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Reason and Logic

Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a
situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This
process is frequently called a logical syllogism.
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Reason and Logic


Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a
situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This
process is frequently called a logical syllogism.
An example of a logical syllogism is the assumption that “beautiful
people are good.”
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science
 The key elements of the scientific approach are:
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science
 The key elements of the scientific approach are:

Objective measurements of the phenomenon under
consideration
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science
 The key elements of the scientific approach are:


Objective measurements of the phenomenon under
consideration
The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by
other individuals
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science
 The key elements of the scientific approach are:



Objective measurements of the phenomenon under
consideration
The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by
other individuals
Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning
Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science

The key elements of the scientific approach are:




Objective measurements of the phenomenon under
consideration
The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by
other individuals
Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning
Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors
Ways to Acquire Knowledge
(recap)





Tenacity
Authority
Experience
Reason and Logic
Science
Psychological Detective
Psychological Detective

Review the methods for acquiring knowledge that we presented.
How does the scientific method avoid the problems associated
with tenacity, authority, experience, and reason & logic?
Components of the Scientific
Method
Components of the Scientific
Method

Objectivity
Components of the Scientific
Method

Objectivity

A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible.
Components of the Scientific
Method

Objectivity

A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible.

Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as
to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex).
Components of the Scientific
Method

Objectivity

A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible.


Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as
to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex).
Researchers frequently make their measurements with
instruments in order to be as objective as possible. We
describe such measurements as being empirical because they
are based on objectively quantifiable observations.
Components of the Scientific
Method
Components of the Scientific
Method

Confirmation of Findings
Components of the Scientific
Method

Confirmation of Findings

Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we
should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results.
Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of
research.
Components of the Scientific
Method

Confirmation of Findings


Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we
should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results.
Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of
research.
Psychologists use the term replication to refer to a research study
that is conducted in exactly the same manner as a previous study.
A replication with extension generates new information at the same
time it confirms previous findings.
Components of the Scientific
Method
Components of the Scientific
Method

Self-correction
Components of the Scientific
Method

Self-correction
 Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should
lead to a change in the conclusions we reach.
Components of the Scientific
Method

Self-correction
 Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should
lead to a change in the conclusions we reach.

If experimental evidence fails to support the predicted relations
between our independent and dependent variables, we change
our view about how nature operates.
Components of the Scientific
Method
Components of the Scientific
Method

Control
Components of the Scientific
Method

Control
 Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.
Components of the Scientific
Method

Control

Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.

An experiment is an implementation of control by
manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.
Components of the Scientific
Method

Control
 Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.


An experiment is an implementation of control by
manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.
Control of unwanted factors
Components of the Scientific
Method

Control
 Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.


An experiment is an implementation of control by
manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.
Control of unwanted factors

Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than the
factor of major interest) are not allowed to change.
Components of the Scientific
Method (recap)




Objectivity
Confirmation of findings
Self-correction
Control
The Psychological Experiment

Experiment
The Psychological Experiment

Experiment
 An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations that
exist in nature.
The Psychological Experiment

Experiment
 An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations that
exist in nature.

Researchers are interested in determining those factors that
result in or cause predictable events.
The Psychological Experiment

In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of
three related factors:
The Psychological Experiment

In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of
three related factors:

The independent variable
The Psychological Experiment

In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of
three related factors:


The independent variable
The dependent variable
The Psychological Experiment

In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of
three related factors:



The independent variable
The dependent variable
Extraneous variables
The Psychological Experiment

Independent Variable
The Psychological Experiment

Independent Variable (IV)
 The factor that is the major focus of the research and that
the researcher directly manipulates.
The Psychological Experiment

Independent Variable (IV)
 The factor that is the major focus of the research and that
the researcher directly manipulates.
 Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term
control.
The Psychological Experiment

The IV is:
The Psychological Experiment


The IV is:
Independent
The Psychological Experiment


The IV is:
Independent

Can be directly manipulated by the investigator.
The Psychological Experiment


The IV is:
Independent


Can be directly manipulated by the investigator.
Variable

Is able to assume two or more values (levels).
The Psychological Experiment


The IV is:
Independent


Variable


Can be directly manipulated by the investigator.
Is able to assume two or more values (levels).
The causal part of the relation we seek to establish.
The Psychological Experiment
The Psychological Experiment

Dependent Variable
The Psychological Experiment

Dependent Variable (DV)
 Consists of the the recorded information or results of the
experiment.
The Psychological Experiment

Dependent Variable (DV)
 Consists of the the recorded information or results of the
experiment.
 Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are
examining.
The Psychological Experiment

Dependent Variable (DV)
 Consists of the the recorded information or results of the
experiment.
 Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are
examining.
 Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the
IV.
The Psychological Experiment

Extraneous Variables
The Psychological Experiment

Extraneous Variables
 Are those factors, other than the independent variable, that
can influence the dependent variable and change the results
of your experiment.
The Psychological Experiment

Extraneous Variables
 Are those factors, other than the independent variable, that
can influence the dependent variable and change the results
of your experiment.

When an extraneous variable is present we have no way of
knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the
effect we observe.
The Psychological Experiment

Extraneous Variables
 Are those factors, other than the independent variable, that
can influence the dependent variable and change the results
of your experiment.


When an extraneous variable is present we have no way of
knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the
effect we observe.
Attention to extraneous variables represents another use of the
term control.
The Psychological Experiment

Establishing cause-and-effect relations
The Psychological Experiment

Establishing cause-and-effect relations
 Only when we manipulate an independent variable and
control potential extraneous variables are we able to infer a
cause-and-effect relation.
The Psychological Experiment
(recap)




Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variables
Establishing cause-and-effect relations
The Research Process
The Research Process

Finding a Problem
The Research Process

Finding a Problem

Each research project begins as a problem or a question for which
we are seeking an answer.
The Research Process

Reviewing the Literature
The Research Process

Reviewing the Literature

Finding out what research studies already exist in an area
The Research Process

Theoretical Considerations
The Research Process

Theoretical Considerations

A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant
variables in a particular research area.
The Research Process

Theoretical Considerations
 A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the
relevant variables in a particular research area. All good
theories:

Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data.
The Research Process

Theoretical Considerations
 A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the
relevant variables in a particular research area. All good
theories:


Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data.
Points the way to new research.
The Research Process

Hypothesis
The Research Process

Hypothesis

Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected
portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or
theory.
The Research Process

Hypothesis


Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected
portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or
theory.
The research or experimental hypothesis is the
predicted outcome of a research project.
The Research Process

Hypothesis


Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected
portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or
theory.
The research or experimental hypothesis is the
predicted outcome of a research project.

The research hypothesis states a testable prediction about the
relations between the independent and dependent variables in
your experiment.
The Research Process
The Research Process

Research Design
The Research Process

Research Design
 A general plan for conducting your research.
The Research Process

Research Design
 A general plan for conducting your research.
 Your research design specifies:
The Research Process

Research Design
 A general plan for conducting your research.
 Your research design specifies:

How you will select your participants and assign them to
groups.
The Research Process

Research Design
 A general plan for conducting your research.
 Your research design specifies:


How you will select your participants and assign them to
groups.
The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use.
The Research Process

Research Design
 A general plan for conducting your research.
 Your research design specifies:



How you will select your participants and assign them to
groups.
The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use.
How you will gather your data.
The Research Process
The Research Process

Conducting the Experiment
The Research Process

Conducting the Experiment

The next step is to actually conduct the experiment (gather the
data).
The Research Process

Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions
The Research Process

Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions

Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed.
The Research Process

Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions


Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed.
Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether
manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV.
The Research Process

Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions



Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed.
Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether
manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV.
If manipulation of the IV had a statistically significant effect on the
DV, and if the experiment was well-designed, we can infer that the
IV manipulation was the cause of the DV effect we recorded.
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory

Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and
theory.
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory


Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and
theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory



Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and
theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory




Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and
theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this
research area?
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory





Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and
theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this
research area?
If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in
our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them?
The Research Process

Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory






Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and
theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this
research area?
If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in
our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them?
Does lack of support for our hypothesis disconfirm the theory?
The Research Process
The Research Process

Preparing the Research Report
The Research Process

Preparing the Research Report

A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific
community.
The Research Process

Preparing the Research Report


A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific
community.
A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by
the American Psychological Association (APA).
The Research Process

Preparing the Research Report


A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific
community.
A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by
the American Psychological Association (APA).
 APA format allows researchers to know exactly what to include
in their papers and readers to know exactly where to look for
specific experimental details, procedures, and results.
The Research Process

Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
The Research Process

Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
 The two most popular ways to share results are:
The Research Process

Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
 The two most popular ways to share results are:

Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention,
and/or
The Research Process

Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
 The two most popular ways to share results are:


Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention,
and/or
Publish an article in a professional journal
The Research Process

Finding a New Problem
The Research Process

Finding a New Problem

The more deeply you immerse yourself in a research area, the
more questions and problems you will find to research.
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

It assists you in other classes
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

It assists you in other classes

The more completely you understand research methodology, the
better you will be able to master the material in your other classes.
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Conducting a research project after graduation
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Conducting a research project after graduation

You might have to conduct research as a condition of future
employment (even if you’re not particularly interested in research
at this point in time).
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Getting into Graduate School
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Getting into Graduate School

Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in
research methods or experimental psychology very positively.
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Getting into Graduate School


Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in
research methods or experimental psychology very positively.
Having presented or published a report is also rated very highly by
graduate school admissions committees.
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research.
Why is the Research Methods
Course Important?

Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research.

If you understand the research on which a variety of claims are
based, then you are in a position to make a more educated
decision concerning such knowledge claims.