Psychosocial, Retirement, Relationship and
Societal Issues
Chapter 15, Kail & Cavanaugh
15.1 Theories of Psychological Aging

 What is continuity theory?
 What is the competence and environmental press
model, and how do docility and proactivity relate to
the model?
Continuity Theory

 Continuity theory - theory based on idea that people
tend to cope with daily life in later adulthood by
applying familiar strategies based on past experience
to maintain and preserve both internal and external
structures
 3 degrees of continuity
 Too Little - feel life is too unpredictable (or too chaotic)
 Too Much - can create boredom or a rut of predictability
 Optimal - enough change to be a challenge and provide
interest by not taxing one’s resources
Competence Environmental
Press Theory

Competence—the upper limit of a person’s
ability to function in five domains; physical
health, sensory-perceptual skills, motor skills,
cognitive skills, and ego strength
Environmental press—the physical,
interpersonal, or social demands that
environments put on people

 Adaptation level - when press level is average for a
particular level of competence
 Zone of maximum performance potential - when
press level is slightly higher (than the person’s
competence level), tending to improve performance
 Zone of maximum comfort - when press level is
slightly slower, facilitating a high quality of life

Dealing with Change

 Proactivity - when people choose new behaviors to
meet new desires or needs and exert control over
their lives
 Docility - when people allow their situation to
dictate the options they have
14.2 Personality, Social Cognition,
and Spirituality

 What is integrity in late life? How do people achieve
it?
 How is well-being defined in adulthood? How do
people view themselves differently as they age?
 What role does spirituality play in late life?
Integrity versus Despair

 Integrity versus Despair - (Erikson) - the stage in later life in which
people try to make sense of their lives
 Requires a life review
 Process by which people reflect on the events and experiences of
their lifetimes
 Connection between engaging in life review and achieving
integrity
Well-Being and Social Cognition

 Subjective well-being - an evaluation of one’s life
that is associated with positive feelings
 Influenced by: hardiness, chronic illness, marital
status, quality of one’s social network, and stress
 Women may experience less subjective well-being
Study Findings


Findings from a Study of
Subjective Well-Being

 Having more social resources was related to ____________.
 Having fewer social resources was related to _______________.
 Having more social resources was related to _______________
____________________. Having fewer social resources was
related to less subjective well-being.
 Less stress was related to greater subjective well-being. More
stress was related to less subjective well-being.
 Stress mediates (or influences) the relation between social
resources and subjective well-being.
 Findings were true regardless of the ___________ of the adult.

 Older adults report more stress related to health
but lower stress regarding finances and housing.
 Dependent on SES of sample
Spirituality in Later Life

 Spirituality is a means by which older individuals can
cope with life
 Spiritual support - type of coping strategy that
includes seeking pastoral care, participation in
organized and unorganized religious activities, and
expressing faith in a God who cares for people
 Faith in God’s help is distinguishing between what
can and cannot be changed, doing what one can to
change the things they can, and letting go of those
things that cannot be changed
15.3 …Living in Retirement

 What does being retired mean?
 Why do people retire?
 How satisfied are retired people?
 How do retirees keep busy?

What does “retired” mean?
What Does Being Retired Mean?

 Does not always mean complete absence of a work
 “Crisp”
 “Blurred”
 Often people have a bridge job
 Transitional job held between one’s exit from a career
job and the final retirement
 Associated with retirement and life-satisfaction
Why do People Retire?

 Often by choice unless there is a serious health
reason
 Feel they are financially secure
 Physical health problems interfere with work
 People with jobs that are physically demanding tend to
retire earlier
 Women enter the workforce later and have more
interruptions in their work history
 Women with husbands that have poor health or with
larger numbers of dependents tend to retire earlier.
 Men with wives that have poor health or with larger
number of dependents tend to retire later.
Adjusting to Retirement

 Develops over time as an interplay between physical
health, financial status, voluntary retirement status, and
feelings of personal control
 Men who place high priority on family report more
retirement satisfaction
 Women’s satisfaction with retirement is not associated
with any specific roles
 Research does not support belief that health begins to
decline after retirement
 A sedentary lifestyle at any age or life stage will predict
health problems
Keeping Busy in Retirement

Organizations for retirees such as the AARP
have increased the availability of activities
and interests among the retired
Retirees volunteer and find ways to provide
service to others
Volunteering promotes a personal sense of
purpose
15.4 Friends and Family
in Late Life

 What role do friends and family play in late life?
 What are older adults’ marriages life?
 What is it like to provide basic care for one’s partner?
 How do people cope with widowhood? How do
men and women differ?
 What special issues are involved in being a greatgrandparent?
Friends and Siblings

 Social convoy - a group of people that journeys with
us throughout our lives, providing support in good
times and bad
 Socioemotional selectivity - process by which social
contact is motivated by many goals, including
information seeking, self-concept, and emotional
regulation
Friends and Siblings

Patterns of friendships in late life are similar
to those in young adulthood
 Older adults have fewer relationships than
younger adults
Sibling relationships (5):
 Intimate sibling relationships- 14%
 Hi closeness, involvement, and contact.
 Low envy and resentment.

 Congenial sibling relationships- 30%
 Hi closeness, involvement. Avg. contact.
 Low envy and resentment.
 Loyal sibling relationships- 34%
 Avg. closeness, involvement, and contact.
 Low envy and resentment.
 Apathetic sibling relationships- 11%
 Low closeness, involvement, contact, envy and
resentment.
 Hostile sibling relationships- 11%
 Hi involvement and resentment.
 Low levels of closeness and contact.
Marriage and Same-Sex Partners

 Older couples are more likely to be similar in
mental and physical health and show fewer
gender differences in sources of pleasure
 Older couples usually have developed effective
ways to avoid conflict
 No known differences between older gay and
lesbian relationships and those of heterosexuals,
in terms of quality
Caring for a Partner

 Caring for a chronically ill partner is more stressful
and challenging than caring for a chronically ill
parent
 Division of labor has to be readjusted
 Spouses of Alzheimer’s patients report more
depression and decreased marital satisfaction
 Older adults who have higher feelings of competence
report few hassles in caring for partners
Widowhood

 The death of a spouse is among the most
traumatic experiences a person will experience
 More than half of all women over 65 are widows
 15% of men the same age are widowers
 Friends and family may not visit or socialize as
much with elders after the death of a spouse
Widowhood

 Men are at a higher risk of dying, themselves, soon after the
death of a spouse
 Some researchers believe that a man’s wife is often his only close friend
and confidant
 There is evidence that older men are less likely to be able to carry out
routine activities such as shopping and financial responsibilities
 Women are usually less financially secure when widowed and
are more likely to enter poverty status
 Widowers (male) are 5 times more likely to remarry than
widows (female)
Great-Grandparenthood

Great-grandparenting is an enjoyable and
important role
Three important aspects of greatgrandparenthood:
 Gives a sense of personal and family renewal
 Great-grandchildren provide new diversions and
a positive new role
 A major milestone of longevity, which is usually
viewed positively
Community Living
Arrangements

 Assisted living facilities - a supportive living arrangement for
people who need assistance with ADLs or IADLs but who are
not so impaired physically or cognitively that they need 24hour care
 Intermediate care - facility that consists of 24-hour care
necessitating nursing supervision, but usually not at an intense
level
 Skilled nursing care - facility that consists of 24-hour care
requiring fairly constant monitoring and provision of medical
and other health services, usually by nurses
Who Lives in Nursing Homes?

 Often widowed or divorced, financially
disadvantaged, without living family, very old,
and European American
 Residents are commonly:






Over age 85, Female
Recently admitted to a hospital
Lives in retirement housing
Unmarried or living alone
Has no children nearby
Has cognitive impairment, has problem with IADLs

 Researchers suggest a “person-centered planning”
approach to nursing home policies
 This approach promotes residents’ well-being by
increasing their feelings of personal control
 Nursing home staff should avoid:
 Patronizing speech (speech marked by slower speed,
exaggerated intonation, higher pitch, increase volume,
repetitions, close-ended questions, simplified vocabulary
and grammar)
 Infantilization (i.e., using first names when inappropriate,
terms of endearment, etc.)