GUIDING
FRAMEWORKS FOR
LEADERSHIP &
MANAGEMENT
Class 7
October 28, 2009
Judith Anne Shaw, Ph.D., R.N.
Class 7
Overview
I) Understanding Organizations
II) Change Process
III) Nursing Leadership for Today
Elements of An
Organization
 Theories
 Change
 Structure
 Culture
Relevant Organizational
Theories
 Two Schools of Thought
 Traditional
 Contemporary
Traditional Theories
 Classical
 Humanistic
 Systems
 Contingency
Contemporary Theories
 Complexity Science
(Chaos and Quantum)
Remember…
The worldview
when
the theory was developed
Classic Theory
 Prevalent 1900’s
 Focus: structure of the formal
organization
 Aim: to boost efficiency and productivity
Classic Theory
 Theorists
 Fredrick Taylor
 Frank and Lillian GIlbreath
 Henri Fayol
Classic Theory
 Four Elements
 Division and Specification of Labour
 Unity of Command
 Organizational Structure
 Span of Control
Classic Theory
 Division of Labour
 Specific parts of work assigned to be
completed by different individuals
Frederick Winslow Taylor
(1856-1915)
 father of scientific management
 detailed principles on increasing the
productivity of workers in the Midvale Steel
Works Plant in Pennsylvania (1911)
Principles:
Increase Productivity in the
Workplace
1. Develop a science for each individual’s
work
2. Improve production efficiency through
work studies, tools, and economic
incentives
Principles:
Increase Productivity in the
Workplace
3. Ensure scientific selection, training, and
development of the workers
4. Divide work and responsibilities
between management and workers
CHALLENGE
 Provide a Health Care example of
worker’s accurate and efficient
production.
Classic Theory
 Unity of Command
(AKA Unity of Direction)
 Authority- the right of one person to give orders
 fulfill objectives or perform certain functions
 report to one supervisor ranked immediately above the
employee
CHALLENGE
System Theory
Provide a Health
Care example of
Unity of Direction
Classic Theory
 Organizational Structure
 How a group is formed
 Line of Command
ORGANIZAITONAL
STRUCTURE
In your own words, describe
organizational structure.
Metaphors for
Organizational Structures
Traditional Hierarchical Structure:
Ladder, Steps, or Certain Dynamics
Max Weber
(1846-1920)
“Ideal Democracy”

impersonality would be optimal and
would remove favoritism

what makes people respond to
authority
“ideal democracy”
Impersonal,
rational,
regulated
Employees
treated fairly
work environment
Organization
reach objectives
“ideal democracy”
… only through concentrated
Power in the hands of a few
people in a hierarchical structure
can an organization be managed
effectively…
Traditional
Hierarchical Structure
Rankings of employees from top to
bottom
Few persons at the top, many persons
at the bottom
Traditional
Hierarchical Structure
Top persons have authority, delegate to
persons below themselves
Need persons at both top and bottom
Traditional
Hierarchical Structure
 Consider as steps or
rungs on a ladder:
(top to bottom)
Traditional
Hierarchical Structure
CEO, Administrators,
Managers,
Staff Nurses,
Technicians,
Aides,
Housekeeping,
Maintenance
“ideal democracy”
Advantage:
- assure the overall success of an
organization
Disadvantage:
- remove autonomy from the individual
Classic Theory
 Span of Control
 Number of employees a manager can effectively
and efficiently supervise.
Span of Control
Henri Fayol (1841-1925)
- developed strategies in the mining
industry
- managers perform five basic functions
Manager’s
Five Basic Functions
 Planning
 Organizing
 Commanding
 Coordinating
 Controlling
Span of Control
Larger the
Span
Less potential
for Coordination
by Direct
Supervision
Humanistic Theory
 Time Period: 1930’s-present day
 Focus: Human Relations
 Aim: Workers as social beings
Human Relations
(Behavioral Movement)
 Clinical psychologists, Harvard Business
School (Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, and
William J. Dickson)
 Studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the
Western Electric Company, outside Chicago (19271932)
 “Hawthorne Effect”
Human Relations
(Behavioral Movement)
 Workers recognized as social beings
 When managers behave towards
workers in ways that elicit their
cooperation, productivity may increase.
Humanistic
(Motivation) Theories
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Quchi’s Theory Z
Humanistic/
Motivation Theories
The individual is a source of motivation.
Worker output is greater
when the worker
is treated humanistically.
Explain
In your own words, explain
Maslow’ Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory of Motivation
 Motivational Factors= job satisfiers
(intrinsic)
 Hygiene Factors =
job dissatisfaction
(extrinsic)
Motivational Factors
Intrinsic
-achievement, recognition, work itself,
responsibility, and advancement
When present- people are motivated and
satisfied with their job
When absent- people have a neutral attitude
about their organization
Maintenance or Hygiene Factors
Extrinsic
- organizational policy, administration,
quality of supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with co-workers, job
security, working conditions, and status
Must be maintained to avoid job
dissatisfaction
McGregor’s
Theory X and Theory Y
Attitudes about the nature of people
Theory X: negative assumptions about
human nature and managerial
responsibilities
Theory Y: a natural desire to work
MANAGEMENT THEORIES
X
Work is to be
avoided
People want to do
as little as
possible
Use controlsupervisionpunishment
Y
The work itself can be
motivating
People really want to
do their job well
Use guidance
-development
-reward
Ouchi’s Theory Z
 Deming and Drucker: management
methods used to rebuilt Japan after WWII
 Quality Circles- collective decisionmaking
 Shared governance- the importance of
encouraging group contributions
Ouchi’s Theory Z
 Large amount of freedom and trust with
workers
 Assumes that workers have a strong
loyalty and interest in team-working and
the organization.
Systems Theory
 Period of Time: 1960’s to present
 Focus: interrelated parts of the system
and their functions
 Aim: to determine system effectiveness
System Theory
 Closed: limited, no interaction with its
outside environment; self-contained
 Open: dynamically interacting and
adapting with both internal and
external forces
System Theory
 Input-
 Throughput Output-
System Theory
 Advantages: broad-brush perspective, ‘seeing
the big picture’
 Disadvantages: complexity of
organizations and interactive effects may
not be fully recognized
CHALLENGE
Provide a Health Care example of
System Theory
Contingency Theory
 Time Period: 1960’s to present
 Focus: situation factors alter and
influence organizations; match
leader’s style and situation
 Aim: to match an organization’s structure
to its environment; leadership style to
the situation
Contingency Approaches of
Leadership
 Factors in the environment influence
outcomes as much as leadership style
 Leadership effectiveness dependent on
something other than the leader’s
behavior
Contingency Approaches of
Leadership
Premise:
Different behavior patterns by
leader will be effective in
different situations.
Contingency Approaches of
Leadership
 Fielder’s Contingency Theory
 Situational Theory
 Path-Goal Theory
Fielder’s Contingency
Theory
Situation
Interaction of the need of the situation
and the personality of the leader
determine the leader behavior
Situational Theory
Hersey and Blanchard
Follower readiness
(job maturity)
Nurse leader matches the leadership
style with the job maturity of the
nurse
Situational Theory
Hersey and Blanchard
1. Telling Style
2. Selling Style
3. Participating Style
4. Delegating Style
Path-Goal Theory
Nurse leader strives to make
the path towards the goal easier
for the follower
by selecting the best style of
leadership
Path-Goal Theory
Nurse leader provides
motivators for followers
and influences
goal accomplishments
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
 Chaos
 Complexity
 Quantum
Change
 A natural process
 Dynamic
Types of Change
 Spontaneous change:
 Developmental change:
 Planned change:
Mini Self-Quiz
Do you think that theories are necessary to
explain management?
What value is theory to management?
Organizational Culture
Four Functions:
1. Sense of organizational identity
2. Collective commitment
3. Social stability
4. Shapes attitude and influences
behaviours of employees
WHAT makes a leader?
LEADERSHIP THEORIES:
1) Behavioral Approaches
3) Contingency Approaches
4) Contemporary Approaches
Socialization Process
 Anticipatory Socialization
 Encounter
 Change and Acquisition:
Cultural Diversity
 Vast range of cultural differences among
individuals or groups working in an
organization
DEFINE
LEADERSHIP
Leadership
 the ability to influence other people
toward goal achievement
Leadership:
The Process of Influence
The person in charge influences others:
 to work more effectively together
 to do what is required of oneself in the most
effective & humane way possible
 to work together in pursuit of a shared goal
Leadership
TWO FORMS
1. Formal Leadership
2. Informal Leadership
Formal Leadership
 A person in a position of authority or in
the sanctioned role that represents
influence.
Formal Leadership
Examples
1.
2.
3.
4.
Clinical Nurse Specialist
Nurse Manager
Acute Care Nurse Practitioners
Professional Practice Leaders
Informal Leadership
 Person who demonstrated leadership
outside the scope of a formal leadership
role; a member of a group, rather than
the head or leader of the group.
Informal Leadership
 The individual is accepted by others and
is perceived to have influence
Followership
 Separate from leadership
 Reciprocal roles
leadership & followership
 Essential to the leadership process
(Burns, 1978; Hibberd & Smith, 2006; Kelly & Crawford, 2008;
Kouzes & Posner, 1989)
Followership
 Non passive role
 Self-directed employee
 Active participant in setting direction for a
group
Followership
Leaders induce followers to act
where the wants, needs, and expectations
of both are similar
Followership
Followers determine
if the leader is effective or not
Types of Followers
1. Subordinates
2. Contributors
3. Politicians
4. Partners
(Pittman, Rosenbach, & Potter, 1998)
Types of Followers
1. Subordinates
- doing what one is told but not actively
involved.
2. Contributor
- supportive, involved, and doing a good job,
but not willing to challenge the ideas of the
leader
Types of Followers
3. Politicians
-willing to give honest feedback and support
the leader, but may neglect the job and have
poor performance levels
4. Partners
- highly involved, perform at a high level,
promote positive relationships within the
group, and are seen as ‘leaders-in-waiting”
(Pittman, Rosenbach, & Potter, 1998)
Followership
How to becoming
a better follower?
Followership
Flourishes
in atmosphere
of
trust and respect
Define
Management
Management
The systematic process of
planning,
organizing,
leading,
and controlling actions and resources
to achieve organizational goals
Management is...
Varied Perspectives:
1) planning, organizing, commanding,,
coordinating, and controlling work
given to employees (Henry Fayol, 1916)
Management is...
2) to do what ever makes certain that
employees do their work and do it
well
(Mintzberg, 1989)
Managerial Roles
1. Information Processing Role:
- used to manage people’s information needs

monitor

disseminator

spokesperson
Managerial Roles
2. Interpersonal Role:
-used to manage relationships with people

figurehead

leader

liaison
Managerial Roles
3. Decision Role:
- used by manager when making decisions

entrepreneur

disturbance handler

allocator of resources

negotiator
Managerial Roles
1. Information processing
2. Interpersonal roles
3. Decision-making roles
(Mintzberg, 1973)
Managing the Work
Informational
Interpersonal
Decisional
Managerial Role Functions
 Managing the work
 Managing relationships
(Kim & Yukl, 1995; Yukl, 1998; Yukl, Wall, &
Lepsinger, 1990)
Managerial Role Functions
Managing the Work
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Planning and organizing
Problem solving
Clarifying roles and objectives
Informing
Monitoring
Consulting
Delegating
(Kim & Yukl, 1995; Yukl, 1998; Yukl, Wall, &
Lepsinger, 1990)
Managing the Work
Leadership
Clinical Expertise
Business Sense
Managing the Work
able to assess effectiveness
of the work
Business Sense
as Manager
 balance the budget
 estimate the cost of providing care
Informational Behaviors
as Manager
 Representing Employees
 Representing the Organization
 Dissemination
Managerial Role Functions
Managing Relationships
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Networking
Supporting
Developing and mentoring
Managing conflict and team building
Motivating and inspiring
Recognizing and rewarding
NETWORKING
 develop positive relationship
with others
CONFLICT NEGOTIATION
&
RESOLUTION
 resolving conflicts between
employees
EMPLOYEE
DEVELOPMENT
 helping workers to be
challenged to learn
 foster a learning environment
REWARDS &
PUNISHMENTS
 Rewards:
tangible
intangible
 Punishments:
WHAT makes a leader?
LEADERSHIP THEORIES:
1) Behavioral Approaches
3) Contingency Approaches
4) Contemporary Approaches
Behavioral
Approaches:
Leadership
(what a leader does)
Behavioral
Approaches
Leadership Styles (3)
Leadership Style (3)
1) Authoritarian
2) Democratic
3) Laissez-Faire
Leadership Style
Authoritarian
(autocratic, directive, controlling)
High Control
Authoritarian
(autocratic, directive, controlling)
-gives orders
-makes decisions for the group as a
whole
-bears most of the responsibility
for the outcomes
Authoritarian
Leadership Style
Positive:
- efficient
- may be benign
- output; high quantity/good quality
Negative:
- tends to stifle creativity
- may inhibit motivation
- may be punitive
Leadership Style
Democratic
(participative)
-shares the planning, decision making and
responsibility for outcomes with other
group members
GUIDES
Democratic
Guidance
Moderate Control
Democratic
Leadership Style
Positive:
-more flexible
-more likely to foster motivation and
creativity
- output; high quality
Negative:
-less efficient vs. authoritarian
Leadership Style
Laissez-Faire
(permissive, nondirective)
Little Control
Laissez-Faire
-very little planning or decision
making
-fails to encourage others to
participate in planning or decision
making
-lack of leadership
“let it alone”
Laissez-Faire
Leadership Style
Positive:
-mature individuals enjoy the lack of direction
-more freedom
Negative:
-people may feel confused and frustrated
because of no goal or guidance
-flounder
-output; variable- may be poor quality
Contingency Approaches of
Leadership
 Factors in the environment influence
outcomes as much as leadership style
 Leadership effectiveness dependent on
something other than the leader’s
behavior
Contingency Approaches of
Leadership
Premise:
Different leader behavior patterns
will be effective in different
situations.
Transformational
Theory of Leadership
- providing
people with a sense of
mission
meaning, inspiration, & vision
Transformational
Theory of Leadership
results oriented planning
TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADER
- describes the goal in such a meaningful
and exciting manner that people commit
to the work
-effective leadership is defined by
accomplishment of the goals shared by
leaders and follower
Qualities of Effective
Leaders
Integrity
Courage
Initiative
Energy
Optimism
Perseverance
Balance
Ability to handle stress
Self-awareness
#1. Integrity as Leader
Adherence to codes
of personal & professional ethics
Lead by example
#2. Demonstrate
Courage as a Leader
often need to take risks
#3. Use Initiative as a
Leader
must act on good
ideas
#4. Energetic as Leader
requires much effort
#5. Optimistic as Leader
focus on identification of problems and
solutions
“ripple effect” with others
winners not whiners
#6. Perseverance as
Leader
maintain the focus
persist
#7. Balanced as Leader
good mix of work,
reflection, and play in one’s life
#8. Management of Stress
as Leader
positive coping strategies
use of available supports
#9. Self-Awareness as
Leader
knows, understands and accepts self
(as a thinking…
feeling human being…
who interacts with others in a
positive manner)
Behaviors of
Effective Leaders
Think critically
Solve Problems
Respect People
Communicate Skillfully
Set Goals, Share a Vision
Develop Self & Others
Think Critically
as Leader
thinks before making decisions
 reflective, reasoned analysis
 questioning & analyzing ideas
Solving Problems
as Leader
help others identify problems
help others use problem-solving
process
seek a reasonable, workable
solution
Respecting Others
as Leader
 recognize others’
different wants and needs
 help others find
rewards in their
work
Listening to Others &
Communicating Skillfully as
Leader
 observe others & listen to what they say
 encourage exchange of information
 provide feedback
Setting Goals &
Fostering a Future Vision
as Leader
 facilitates group setting goals
 shares future vision with and by the
group
 facilitates all to work towards
the envisioned results
Self-Development and
Coaching Others as
a Leader

continue self-learning

encourage to continue
self-learning
Leadership Skills
as Manager
essential for the manager
managers manage people
Decisional Behaviors
as Manager
 Employee Evaluations
 Resource Allocation
 Planning
 Job Analysis & Redesigning
MOTTO
Place every criticism
between two layers of praise