Unit 4: Jeffersonian Democracy
1800 - 1823
Goals of the Unit:
• To understand how Jefferson’s effective and
pragmatic policies strengthened the principles of
two-party republican government, despite the
many rifts between Federalists and Republicans
over particular issues.
• To examine how despite his intentions, Jefferson
became deeply entangled in the foreign-policy
conflicts of the Napoleonic era, leading to a highly
unpopular and failed embargo that revived the
fading Federalist Party.
• To be able to explain how James Madison fell into
an international trap set by Napoleon, creating
increased tension between the British and
Americans, leading to the War of 1812.
• To be able to explain how the American effort in the
War of 1812 was plagued by poor strategy, political
divisions, and increasingly aggressive British power.
Nevertheless, the United States escaped with a
stalemated peace settlement and ushered in an era
of isolation from Europe.
• To understand that the aftermath of the War of 1812
produced a strong surge of American nationalism
that was reflected in economics, law, and foreign
policy, but this would ultimately cause regional
disputes between the North, South, and West
• To recognize how Chief Justice John Marshall's
Supreme Court strengthened the federal
government’s power over the states during this era
by supporting a "loose construction" of the
Constitution.
Election of 1800
• Federalists becoming unpopular:
– Alien and Sedition Acts
– Adams refused war with France
– Adams built up navy, but wouldn’t use it
• Seen as wasting money
– Federalists split: Hamilton vs. Adams
• Election of 1800: Adams (Federalist) vs. Thomas
Jefferson (Democratic-Republicans)
• Commonly referred to as just “Republicans” by now
• The smear campaign is born:
– Dirty campaigning and damaging accusations
• Adams, Hamilton, Jefferson all affected
“Revolution” of 1800
• Aaron Burr ties Jefferson with 73
Electoral votes
– Vote goes to House of Reps.
– After 35 ties, Jefferson wins, becomes 3rd
president
• “Revolution of 1800”
– Peaceful exchange of power
• Significance: new democratic government
system put to test and worked
– Republicans viewed as the “people’s party”
• Significance: people felt they had the power
President Thomas Jefferson
• Inaugurated in Washington DC in March, 1801
– “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”
• Stressed “moderation” between political parties
• Meant to calm fearful Federalists
• Set precedent for exchanges of power in future
– “Honest friendship with all nations, entangling
alliances with none.”
• Correcting foreign policy mistakes of past
• Image of “people’s president”
• Political philosopher, idealist
Jefferson’s Presidency
• Moderation stressed, but did undo some
Federalist policies:
– Pardoned prisoners from the Sedition Act
– Scaled back Alien Act from 14 to 5 years for citizenship
requirement
– Removed the tax on whiskey
• Only part of Hamilton’s economic plan he changed
• Yearly $1 million revenue from tax lost
• Sec. of Treasury: Albert Gallatin
– Balanced budget and reduced debt despite struggling
economy
• Actions of moderation help keep two party
system in tact
Power Struggle in the Judiciary
• Before exiting the White House, Federalists pass
Judiciary Act of 1801
– Created 16 new federal court districts
• Adams fills new federal court positions with Federalist
judges – “midnight judges”
– Why?
– Judges serve for life, ensures lasting Federalist influence
• John Marshall – appointed Supreme Court Justice by
Adams
– Committed to Federalist agenda: strengthen federal gov’t
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
• First major Supreme Court case
• William Marbury – midnight judge rejected by
Jefferson’s new Sec. of State James Madison
– Marbury cites laws and technicalities to demand his
appointed position
• Case struck down by the Supreme Court as
unconstitutional
• Significance: first time Supreme court used “judicial
review” – courts power to review if laws are
constitutional or not
• In retaliation, Reps try and fail to impeach Supreme
Court justice Samuel Chase
• Significance: Checks and balances between branches
working
Jefferson and War
• Non-violent Jefferson geared America for time of
peace
– Downsized army and navy
• North African Barbary pirates harassing U.S. trade
ships
• “Tripolitan War” AKA “First Barbary War”
– Jefferson sends Navy to Tripoli
• Officer Stephen Decatur and birth of Marines play big roles
• U.S. wins war, Barbary piracy diminishes
• Jefferson “cheaply” re-strengthens navy with
gunboats
The Louisiana Purchase
• 1800 – Napoleon gains Louisiana territory from
Spain
– Pinckney Treaty with Spain now void
• Restricts American use of Mississippi River
– Foreign Minister Robert Livingston sent to France
to negotiate
• Offers $10 million for small portion of land for access to
Mississippi River
– Napoleon offers $15 million for whole Louisiana
territory
• Napoleon needed consolidation and quick cash for
impending conquest
The Louisiana Purchase
• Jefferson split:
– Pros: Would double size of country for very little
money
– Cons: Delegates were only authorized $10 million,
sees presidential action as unconstitutional
• Practicality over idealism
• Decides to purchase, Senate approves
– Federalists oppose purchase
• More land = more settlers/farmers = more Republican
support
• Size of U.S. instantly doubles
Exploring the West
• Jefferson sends expeditions to explore new
land:
– Ordered to establish friendly relations with
Indians
– Take notes of land, animals, plants, etc
• Northern route: Meriwether Lewis and
William Clark
• Southern Route: Zebulon Pike
Aaron Burr Ousted
• Jefferson removes Burr as VP candidate for
second election
• Burr conspiracies start:
– Organized a secession of NY and New England
• Hamilton ended the scheme by revealing plan to
Jefferson
Aaron Burr Ousted
• Jefferson removes Burr as VP candidate for
second election
• Burr conspiracies start:
– Organized a secession of NY and New England
• Hamilton ended the scheme by revealing plan to Jefferson
– Burr kills Hamilton in duel
– Organized a plan to take over land and start a new
nation west of the Mississippi
• Jefferson arrests Burr for treason, found not guilty on
technicality
Cost of Neutrality
• 1803 – Napoleon begins war in Europe
– Helps American economy – trade with both England & France
• By 1805: British rule sea, French rule land
• 1806 – Orders of Council issued by England
– Any foreign ship heading to France was subject to inspection
– France retaliates by declaring same treatment for ships
entering British ports
– America stuck in the middle
• As war drags on, impressment on both sides becomes
widespread
• 1807 – British ship Leopard attacks American ship off
Virginia
– Public calls for war, Jefferson refuses
The Embargo Act (1807)
(“The Damnbargo Act”)
• Jefferson avoids conflict with England and France
by putting an “embargo” on all exports
• “embargo” = official ban on trade
– Forbade all exports to all nations
• Economy is crippled
– New England, NYC hurt most
• Smuggling returns
– Farmers in South and West less affected
– Congress repeals Embargo Act after much protest
• Non-Intercourse Act then passed in 1809
– Outlawed trade ONLY with England and France
The Embargo Act
• Non-Intercourse Act ineffective
– Top trading partners were France and England
• Failure of Embargo Act:
– Jefferson underestimated…
• British reliance on American trade
• Effect embargo would have on economy
– Lost money could have been used to bolster navy &
defend American trade
• One good side-effect: forced an increase in
American industry
President James Madison
• 4th President
• Very scholarly, small stature, great writer, poor
speaker
• Helped create the Republican party with
Jefferson
Macon’s Bill No. 2
• Madison’s solution to the unsuccessful Embargo
Act
– America needs to continue trade with France and/or
England
• Bill proposed to reinstate trade with first country
who stopped harassment and restrictions
– Napoleon quickly accepts offer, trade with France
resumes
– Madison very suspicious of French intentions
The New Congress
• By 1811, Congress had transformed
– New wave of younger, more aggressive politicians
• From West and South
– Referred to as “War Hawks” – always pushing for war
• Henry Clay – most notable “War Hawk”
– Young congressman from Kentucky
– Speaker of the House by age 34
• War Hawks primary issue?
– Indians in the west
– Wanted Indians out to encourage western settlement
• Tecumseh & the Prophet – Shawnee brothers
– Created coalition of tribes
– Convinced other tribes not to sell land to Americans
Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)
• William Henry Harrison
– Indiana Governor, sees Indian coalition as threat
– Organizes attack and defeats the Shawnee at
Prophetstown (Shawnee capital)
• Harrison becomes national hero
– Nicknamed “Tippecanoe”
• Tecumseh allies with British year later to fight
Americans…
Causes of War of 1812
• Issues with Britain becoming too problematic:
– U.S. wanted “freedom of the seas” for trade
• Impressment
– U.S. still upset about British encouraging and aiding Indian
attacks on Americans
– A victory in war could give U.S. respect it needed
• Madison sees war as inevitable
– Asks Congress to declare war, approved
• First time United States declared war
• War declared on England in June 1812
– Many Indian tribes ally with England
• Americans divided in support for war
– West and South pro-war, Northeast very anti-war
War of 1812: Northern Theater
• 1812 – U.S. makes first attack on Canada:
– Fails: poorly planned and executed
• Numerous small attacks, instead of few large strategic ones
• Success in 1813:
• U.S. Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry
– Leads fleet to victory on Lake Erie
• Forces British out of Detroit
• William Henry Harrison
– Defeats retreating British at Battle of Thames
• Tecumseh killed
• Captain Thomas Macdonough
– Stops British fleet at Lake Champlain moving towards NYC
• British plan of “divide and conquer” fails (again)
War of 1812: Middle Theater
• 1814 – British navy arrives in Chesapeake Bay
– Defeat Americans at Battle of Bladensburg
• British march towards Washington D.C.
– Burn down capital
• British en route to Baltimore
– Stopped at Battle of Ft. McHenry
• “Star Spangled Banner” by Francis Key Scott
War of 1812: Southern Theater
• General Andrew Jackson amasses massive,
diverse army
– Included blacks, pirates, French, local militias
– Excellent leader, beloved by troops
– Nicknamed “Old Hickory”
• 1814 – Battle of Horseshoe Bend
– Defeats Indians in Alabama
• British target New Orleans
– Strategic: trade and transportation
– Jackson’s army marches to New Orleans to defend
strategic port
Battle of New Orleans
• Jan 8th, 1815
• Jackson outnumbered (4,000 to 11,000)
• Overwhelming victory for the U.S.
– U.S. casualties:
• 55 killed, 185 wounded,93 missing
– British casualties:
• 386 killed, 1,521 wounded, 552 missing
• Greatest land victory of war
– Jackson becomes a national hero
• Only problem…
Treaty of Ghent
• Signed on December 24, 1814 officially ending war…
– Two weeks prior to Battle of New Orleans
• Peace talks began in August of 1814:
– After recent victories, English make bold demands
– American delegates refuse
• September 1814 – U.S. wins Battle of Plattsburgh
– Extremely important victory
– British lose leverage in treaty negotiations
• Treaty signed as an armistice
– Fighting ceases, no other stipulations
The Hartford Convention
(Dec. 1814 – Jan. 1815)
• New England Federalists take action against war
– Most hurt economically by embargoes, war with
England
Convention held in Hartford, CT
• New England delegates discuss anti-war
movement
– Possible secession discussed
• Demanded monetary help, a 2/3 vote for all
embargoes, new state admissions, or war
– Protest march to D.C. fails
– Significance: dooms the Federalist party
War of 1812: Results
• “Second War for American Independence”
• Significance: America wins respect
• Effects of the war:
–
–
–
–
Pride and unity at an all time high
Federalist party doomed
New war heroes are future presidents (Harrison, Jackson)
Rush-Bagot agreement
• U.S. and England scale down naval presence on Great Lakes
• Signifies the two countries finally at peace
• Napoleonic wars end – Europe at peace, America can
focus on westward expansion
Newly Found Nationalism
• Washington D.C. rebuilt
• Military strengthened
• Trade with England opens…
– hurts American industry
• “The American System”
– Henry Clay’s economic plan
1. A strong banking system
2. A protective tariff to spark American industry
3. A strong transportation network (roads, canals)
(3. heavily opposed by strict constitutionalists, South)
• American cultural boom: new wave of authors,
painters
“Era of Good Feelings”…?
• James Monroe – 5th President (1816)
– Republican party (only party now)
• More united now?
• South upset about tariffs:
– Only benefitted North, gouges South
– North and West improving transportation –
South: “those are partly our taxes!”
Panic of 1819
• Panic of 1819:
– Economic recession hits
• Bankruptcies, unemployment, deflation →
over-speculation
– Bank of the U.S. blamed (conservative
credit policies)
– Eastern banks and financial power would
help start Jacksonian democracy
• Problems effect on election of 1820…?
Westward Troubles
• More states joining the union
• Why expansion?
– Better soil, transportation improving, Land Act of 1820,
“Wildcat banks”
• Method: alternate between slave state & free state
– “Sectional Balance” threatened with Missouri
– Tallmadge Agreement (limited slavery in Missouri) fails
• South saw it as stepping stone to total emancipation
• South worried about population distribution
– Missouri Compromise – Missouri a slave state, Maine a free
state
• Line drawn to determine future states (South of line = slaves, north of
line = free)
Supreme Court Tug-O-War
• Chief Justice John Marshall and Lawyer Daniel Webster
– federalist views
– Federal Government vs. State’s Rights
• McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819)
– Declared Bank of U.S. constitutional
– “Elastic clause”
• Cohens vs. Virginia (1821)
– Supreme Court has power over state courts
• Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824)
– Congress regulates interstate trade, not states
• Who wins in every case?
– Federal Gov’t
• Three more cases would result in Federal Gov’t over State
Power
– South becoming worried
– Slavery soon outlawed?
Foreign Policy
• Sec. of State John Quincy Adams
• Treaty of 1818 with England
– Set up borders, shared territories
• Northern border, Oregon, Newfoundland
• Trouble in Florida
– Central American revolutions
– Spanish, run-away slaves, aggressive Indians
– Jackson leads army into Florida to take control (oversteps
orders)
• Florida Purchase Treaty (1819)
– Spain gives up Florida, small claims in Oregon, America
gives up small claim in Texas
Foreign Policy
• Monarchies slowly gaining power back in Europe
– Russian claims in Northwest
– England imperialism rising
• British foreign secretary George Canning makes proposal to USA:
“Neither of us should take any Latin American land”
– J.Q. Adams suspicious:
• “Why would the U.S. tie her hands for the future?”
– What if one day we do have an interest in Latin American land?
• “Why does the U.S. need to join England in this?”
– England won’t stop shipping and trading down there whether we’re
in Latin America or not
• Fearing European expansion, time for the U.S. to assert some
power…
Monroe Doctrine (1823)
• Asserts:
– Europeans cannot colonize in the Americas
• “KEEP OUT of North, Central, South America”
• Violation of this doctrine will call for war
– Non-intervention
• Europe unhappy, but respected the bold claim
• Latin America unhappy as well
– Already had trade with Britain
– Unsure of American intent
Monroe Doctrine (1823)
• Effects of the Monroe Doctrine:
– Russians had already started pulling back before
Monroe Doctrine
• Russo-American Treaty of 1824 sets new boundary
• Doctrine not a law, could be repealed at any time
– Became foreign policy
• New energy and nationalism