The Upper Limb
The upper limb consists of the arm
(brachium), forearm (antebrachium), and
hand (manus)
Thirty-seven bones form the skeletal
framework of each upper limb
Arm
The humerus is the sole bone of the arm
It articulates with the scapula at the
shoulder, and the radius and ulna at the
elbow
Arm
Major markings
Proximal humerus includes the head,
anatomical and surgical necks, greater and
lesser tubercles, and the intertubercular groove
Distal humerus includes the capitulum, trochlea,
medial and lateral epicondyles, and the
coronoid and olecranon fossae
Medial portion includes the radial groove and
the deltoid process
Humerus of the
Arm
Figure 7.23
Forearm
The bones of the forearm are the radius
and ulna
They articulate proximally with the
humerus and distally with the wrist bones
They also articulate with each other
proximally and distally at small radioulnar
joints
Interosseous membrane connects the two
bones along their entire length
Bones of the Forearm
Figure 7.24
Ulna
The ulna lies medially in the forearm and
is slightly longer than the radius
Forms the major portion of the elbow joint
with the humerus
Its major markings include the olecranon,
coronoid process, trochlear notch, radial
notch, and the styloid process
Radius
The radius lies opposite (lateral to) the
ulna and is thin at its proximal end,
widened distally
The superior surface of the head
articulates with the capitulum of the
humerus
Medially, the head articulates with the
radial notch of the ulna
Major markings include the radial
tuberosity, ulnar notch, and styloid process
Radius and Ulna
Figure 7.24
Hand
Skeleton of the
hand contains
wrist bones
(carpals), bones
of the palm
(metacarpals),
and bones of the
fingers
(phalanges)
Figure 7.26a
Carpus (Wrist)
Consists of eight bones
Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform
proximally
Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate
distally
Metacarpus (Palm)
Five numbered (1-5) metacarpal bones
radiate from the wrist to form the palm
Their bases articulate with the carpals
proximally, and with each other medially and
laterally
Heads articulate with the phalanges
Phalanges (Fingers)
Each hand contains 14 miniature long
bones called phalanges
Fingers (digits) are numbered 1-5,
beginning with the thumb (pollex)
Each finger (except the thumb) has three
phalanges – distal, middle, and proximal
The thumb has no middle phalanx
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelves
Table 7.4.1
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelves
Table 7.4.2
Pelvic Girdle (Hip)
The hip is formed by a pair of hip bones
(os coxae, or coxal)
Together with the sacrum and the coccyx,
these bones form the bony pelvis
Pelvic Girdle (Hip)
The pelvis
Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton
with the strongest ligaments of the body
Transmits weight of the upper body to the lower
limbs
Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis
Pelvic Girdle (Hip)
Figure 7.27a
Ilium
The ilium is a large flaring bone that forms
the superior region of the coxal bone
It consists of a body and a superior
winglike portion called the ala
The broad posterolateral surface is called
the gluteal surface
Ilium
The auricular surface articulates with the
sacrum (sacroiliac joint)
Major markings include the iliac crests,
four spines, greater sciatic notch, iliac
fossa, arcuate line, and the pelvic brim
Ilium: Lateral View
Figure 7.27b
Ilium: Medial View
Figure 7.27c
Ischium
The ischium forms the posteroinferior part
of the hip bone
The thick body articulates with the ilium,
and the thinner ramus articulates with the
pubis
Major markings include the ischial spine,
lesser sciatic notch, and the ischial
tuberosity
Pubis
The pubic bone forms the anterior portion
of the hip bone
It articulates with the ischium and the ilium
Major markings include superior and
inferior rami, the pubic crest, pubic
tubercle, pubic arch, pubic symphysis, and
obturator foramen (along with ilium and
ischium)
Pubis: Lateral View
Figure 7.27b
Pubis: Medial View
Figure 7.27c
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelvic Structure
Female pelvis
Tilted forward, adapted for childbearing
True pelvis defines birth canal
Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and
has greater capacity
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelvic Structure
Male pelvis
Tilted less forward
Adapted for support of heavier male build and
stronger muscles
Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelvic Structure
Image from Table 7.4
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelvic Structure
Characteristic
Female
Male
Bone thickness
Lighter, thinner, and smoother
Heavier, thicker, and
more prominent
markings
Pubic arch/angle
80˚–90˚
50˚–60˚
Acetabula
Small; farther apart
Large; closer together
Sacrum
Wider, shorter; sacral curvature
is accentuated
Narrow, longer; sacral
promontory more ventral
Coccyx
More movable; straighter
Less movable; curves
ventrally
The Lower Limb
The three segments of the lower limb are
the thigh, leg, and foot
They carry the weight of the erect body,
and are subjected to exceptional forces
when one jumps or runs
Femur
The sole bone of the thigh is the femur, the
largest and strongest bone in the body
It articulates proximally with the hip and
distally with the tibia and fibula
Major markings include the head, fovea
capitis, greater and lesser trochanters,
gluteal tuberosity, lateral and medial
condyles and epicondyles, linea aspera,
patellar surface, and the intercondylar
notch
Femur
Figure 7.28b
Leg
The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of
the leg
They are connected to each other by the
interosseous membrane
They articulate with the femur proximally
and with the ankle bones distally
They also articulate with each other via the
immovable tibiofibular joints
Tibia
Receives the weight of the body from the
femur and transmits it to the foot
Major markings include medial and lateral
condyles, intercondylar eminence, the
tibial tuberosity, anterior crest, medial
malleolus, and fibular notch
Tibia and Fibula
Figure 7.29
Fibula
Sticklike bone with slightly expanded ends
located laterally to the tibia
Major markings include the head and
lateral malleolus
Foot
 The skeleton of the
foot includes the
tarsus, metatarsus,
and the phalanges
(toes)
 The foot supports
body weight and
acts as a lever to
propel the body
forward in walking
and running
Figure 7.31a
Tarsus
Composed of seven bones that form the
posterior half of the foot
Body weight is carried primarily on the
talus and calcaneus
Talus articulates with the tibia and fibula
superiorly, and the calcaneus inferiorly
Other tarsus bones include the cuboid and
navicular, and the medial, intermediate,
and lateral cuneiforms
Tarsus
Figure 7.31b, c
Calcaneus
Forms the heel of the foot
Carries the talus on its superior surface
Point of attachment for the calcaneal
(Achilles) tendon of the calf muscles
Metatarsus and Phalanges
Metatarsals
Five (1-5) long bones that articulate with the
proximal phalanges
The enlarged head of metatarsal 1 forms the
“ball of the foot”
Phalanges
The 14 bones of the toes
Each digit has three phalanges except the
hallux, which has no middle phalanx
Metatarsus and Phalanges
Figure 7.31a
Arches of the Foot
The foot has three arches maintained by
interlocking foot bones and strong
ligaments
Arches allow the foot to hold up weight
The arches are:
Lateral longitudinal – cuboid is keystone of this
arch
Medial longitudinal – talus is keystone of this
arch
Transverse – runs obliquely from one side of
the foot to the other
Arches of the Foot
Figure 7.32
Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull
Infant skull has more bones than the adult
skull
At birth, fetal skull bones are incomplete
and connected by fontanels
Fontanels
Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes
between fetal skull bones
The four fontanels are anterior, posterior,
mastoid, and sphenoid
Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull
 Skull bones such as the mandible and maxilla are
unfused
Figure 7.33
Developmental Aspects: Growth
Rates
 At birth, the cranium is
huge relative to the
face
 Mandible and maxilla
are foreshortened but
lengthen with age
 The arms and legs
grow at a faster rate
than the head and
trunk, leading to adult
proportions
Figure 7.34
Developmental Aspects: Spinal
Curvature
Only thoracic and sacral curvatures are
present at birth
The primary curvatures are convex
posteriorly, causing the infant spine to arch
like a four-legged animal
Secondary curvatures – cervical and
lumbar – are convex anteriorly and are
associated with the child’s development
Developmental Aspects: Old Age
Intervertebral discs become thin, less
hydrated, and less elastic
Risk of disc herniation increases
Loss of stature by several centimeters is
common after age 55
Costal cartilages ossify causing the thorax
to become rigid
All bones lose mass