Course Development Project 1
Academic Writing for Graduate Students
A course development designed for graduate students who are
non-native speakers of English in the Social Science field
Jing (Elise) Fang
APLNG 493
Fall 2012
Course Development Project 2
Table of Contents
1. Course Development Framework
a. Needs Assessment
b. Setting Goals and Objectives
c. Conceptualizing the Contents
d. Selecting/developing Materials and Constructing Activities
e. Evaluation
2. Course Syllabus
3. Three Detailed Lesson Plans
a. Constructing A Research Paper Ⅰ
b. Constructing A Research Paper Ⅱ
c. Constructing A Research Paper Ⅲ
Course Development Project 3
1. Course Development Framework
a. Needs Assessment
Upon registering for ‘Academic Writing for Graduate Students’, students will be
asked to write a short essay that provides the instructor with information about their
language background as well as their interests. In this short essay, students are asked
to write what academic writing is from their points of view, what problems they are
facing in their writing, what do they expect most from this course, in what way they
want to be taught, how do they feel about academic writing till now. Through this
essay, students’ language background and expectations can be assessed, and with
ongoing observation of their performance and reactions, instructor can have a better
understanding of students’ needs and motivations thus can revise the teaching plan in
light of students’ feedback along the way.
Free Writing Assignment
Before you taking the ‘Academic Writing for Graduate Students’ class, write a short
essay to talk about your own experience, feelings and expectations about academic
writing in your graduate study. Below are some questions for you to consider. You
should not feel limited to these questions but may have questions that emerge from
your own experience.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
How do you view academic writing?
Have you ever been taught academic writing before?
What problems are you facing in your writing?
How do you evaluate your own academic writing ability?
What made you decide to take this class?
What do you expect most from this academic writing class?
Are there any specific topics you want to learn about in this class?
b. Setting Goals and Objectives
This course is designed to help nonnative English-speaking (NNES) students at the
high-intermediate to advanced level of language proficiency, who are from Social
Science field and are enrolled in graduate courses. The students generally are those
who are working on their own graduate course papers, are conducting research, and/or
are writing theses and dissertations. It is a graduate level writing-intensive course in
order to improve students’ professional writing, and help students become
independent writer in their field.
Course Development Project 4
Course Objectives
By the end of the semester, students will be able to:
• get a better understanding of the features of academic writing in general and
develop language awareness.
• analyze the organizational and linguistic features in research articles in your field
and become aware of the importance of language skills that can be used to improve
writing, such as paraphrase, summarize, and critique.
• get familiar with the three main citation styles in the field: APA style, MLA style,
and the Chicago style.
• interrogate the concept of plagiarism and its implications for scholarly writing.
• get used to various academic sources, such as the databases that are usually used
in your field.
• compose and complete various sections of research articles, such as write abstract,
literature review.
• analyze, revise, and discuss your own writing through such practices as multiple
drafting, careful editing, and conferencing with the instructor, and peer collaboration.
c. Conceptualizing the Content
In order to achieve the aforementioned goals and objectives, students must necessarily
be exposed to frequent opportunities in which writing ability is developed, by critical
reading, critical thinking, critical writing and active discussion and presentation in
class.
Conceptualizing Content: Language skills & content
Listening
Understand class instructions
Make sense of peer’s comments
Engage with peer revising process
Learn about language focus in AW
Speaking
Give suggestions and comments
Do in-class discussion
Do oral presentation of writing
works
Participate in Writer’s Workshop
Reading
Digest required texts
Do critical thinking
Select useful information
Participate in peer-review
Writing
Use narrative to express opinions
Practice writing on different genres
Editing and proofreading
Compose a formal research paper
Course Development Project 5
d. Selecting/developing Materials and Constructing Activities
The main material of this course is a required textbook which specifically suits for the
course goals and objectives and it is recommended by several experienced teachers
who are teaching a similar course now. This textbook gives students a guide to build
their knowledge as well as practice their writing ability step by step. Apart from
contents which discuss important genres and writing skills in academic writing, each
unit of this textbook contains two to three Language Focus sections that step away
from rhetoric in order to deal with some linguistic features along the way. Most of the
contents in this textbook will be covered in class in a different order with other
supplemental materials, for instance, the sources from the library and the Graduate
Writing Center.
Activities are created in order to help students improve not only their writing ability
but also their overall English ability. In this course, students may have one writing
assignment related to the chosen topic each week, and also a final writing project
related to their specific majors. Each class will be divided into three time segments. In
the lecture section, instructor will give lecture about the chosen topic related to
academic writing. In the Language Focus section, instructor and students will talk
about the academic language features related to the chosen genres of the academic
writing or some useful writing skills in general. In the Writer’s Workshop section,
students may do group discussion and peer review about their previous writing
assignments and corresponding reading assignments, and each group may choose one
representative to talk about their discussion. In addition, students and the instructor
will talk about the final research paper in the last four weeks. For the final writing
project, students may choose a topic related to their majors and then begin to read
papers, do data collection and then write a formal academic paper. In every class,
students will be asked to do critical reading and thinking, actively participate in the
writing workshop, do the in-class discussion about their writing, do the peer-review
work, give comments and do proofreading and editing, also do the oral presentation of
their wiring project in the last two classes.
e. Evaluation
The evaluation of this course includes two parts: the instructor’s assessment and the
peer assessment. Both the students and the instructor will assess students’ writing
assignments and the final writing project. The whole class will be divided into small
groups and each group will have different students each week so that every student
can get different people’s feedback. And each student will be given a checklist about
what should be covered in the assignment to help them give relatively fair comments
on their peers’ writing works. Students’ performance will be assessed based on their
active involvement in the class activities and peer assessment, and also their writing
ability. Only through on-going observation of students’ performance and reactions
can the effectiveness of the course be assessed.
Course Development Project 6
2. Course Syllabus
Instructor:
Course Syllabus
Academic Writing for Graduate Students - Spring 2013
Jing (Elise) Fang
Contact:
jxf382@psu.edu
Location:
112 Walker Building
Meetings:
M 6:00- 9:00pm
Office:
304 Sparks Building
Office Hour:
T 1:00- 2:00pm
(by appointment)
Course Description
This course is designed for upper-intermediate and advanced level international
graduate students. Its aim is to help graduate students who are non-native speakers of
English and who are from Social Science field develop the skills and get the strategies
to become better academic writers and readers and members of their chosen field.
Through reading and writing selected rhetorical models of academic disclosure,
students will be able to analyze and use the organizational structure of various models
of academic texts and compose academic articles. In this course, students will engage
in the analysis of rhetorical and linguistic features in research articles in their field;
the collection of academic sources for summary, critique, and synthesis; the
composition of various sections of research articles as well as one complete research
articles; and the analysis, revision, and discussion of their own writing. By the end of
the course, and through rhetorical and language awareness activities, students will be
able to write academic articles that conform to the expectations of their discipline and
the English-speaking academic community, use vocabulary and grammar in
pragmatically appropriate ways to become independent writers in their field.
Course Objectives
By the end of the semester, students will be able to:
• get a better understanding of the features of academic writing in general and
develop language awareness.
• analyze the organizational and linguistic features in research articles in your field
and become aware of the importance of language skills that can be used to improve
writing, such as paraphrase, summarize, and critique.
• get familiar with the three main citation styles in the field: APA style, MLA style,
and the Chicago style.
• interrogate the concept of plagiarism and its implications for scholarly writing.
• get used to various academic sources, such as the databases that are usually used
in your field.
• compose and complete various sections of research articles, such as write abstract,
literature review.
Course Development Project 7
• analyze, revise, and discuss your own writing through such practices as multiple
drafting, careful editing, and conferencing with the instructor, and peer collaboration.
Materials
Required Text
Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (2009). Academic Writing for Graduate Students:
Essential Tasks and Skills. (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Suggested Text
Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (2000). English in today’s research world: a writing guide.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Raimes, A. (2010). Pocket keys for writers.(3rd ed.). New York: Wadsworth Cengage
Learning.
Bonnie Stone Sunstein & Elizabeth Chiseri-Strater. (2007). Field Working: Reading
and Writing Research (3rd Ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Useful link:
A style guide for the formatting system used in your field:
http://www.libraries.psu.edu/psul/researchguides/citationstyles.html
Purdue Online Writing Lab:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
Pennsylvania State University Graduate Writing Center (GWC):
http://composition.la.psu.edu/resources/graduate-writing-center/GWC
Course Requirement
a. Writing Assignment
Free Writing Assignment
Four Essay Assignments with Drafts
#1 Summary Essay
#2 Critique Essay
#3 Book Review
#4 Literature Review
Final Research Paper
b. Reflective Evaluations
These reflective evaluations require students to complete of peer review sheets, give
comments and suggestions. These reflective pieces should require students to analyze
their own writing as well as the writing of others.
c. Final Presentation
The final presentation should allow students to present their final research paper to the
class for feedback and discussion.
**NOTE: ADDITIONAL GRAMMAR HOMEWORK MAY BE ASSIGNED
Course Development Project 8
Final Grade Analysis:
Attendance & Participation………………………10%
Free Writing Assignment…………………………5%
Four Essay Assignments with Drafts…………….45%
#1 Summary Essay…………………………10%
#2 Critique Essay……………………………10%
#3 Book Review……………………………10%
#4 Literature Review………………………15%
Final Research Paper…………………………… 20%
Reflective Evaluations……………………………10%
Final Presentation…………………………………10%
Course Grade based on Total Points (100)
A 100-95
A- 94-90
B+ 89-85
B 84-80
B- 79-76
C 75-70
C- 69-66
D 65-60
F 59-0
Exam Policy
There are no exams in this course.
Organizing of Content & Activities: Class Schedule
All items are subject to change.
Week Date
Class Activity
1
M
1/7
2
M
1/14
Section1: An introduction of
Academic Writing
Setion2: In-class discussion about
the articles you bring in.
Section3: Suggestions for the
workshop
Section1: Reading Strategies &
Writing Summaries
Section2: Language Focus (formal
Assignment
Due
Bring in two recent research articles
in your field.
1. Read AW Unit One and complete Free
tasks 17-20, 22 and 23
writing
2. Check your free writing essay for assignment
Course Development Project 9
vocabulary
and
grammar,
improving language and idea flow
with linking words and phrases in
academic writing)
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
(Announcement)
No Class
3
M
1/21
4
M
1/28
Section1: Writing Summaries
Section2: Language Focus (relate to
summaries)
Section 3: Writer’s Workshop (Peer
review of the first draft of the
summary essay)
5
M
2/4
Section1: Writing Critique
Section2: Language Focus
(relate to critique)
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
(Citation style & Plagiarism, talk
about the scholarly article you bring
in)
6
M
2/11
Section1: Writing Critiques
Section2: Language Focus
(relate to critique)
Section3:Writer’s Workshop
(Peer review of the first draft of the
critique essay)
style and grammar errors, mark Due
the errors and correct them-- (Submit to
please bring this marked and ANGEL)
corrected essay to class.
1. Please complete a full rough draft
of your first essay and submit a
copy to Angel before class; for
class, bring two separate copies of
the essay for peer review and a
discussion of ideas and
organization.
2. Read AW Unit Five and complete
task 1-3 (prepare to discuss in
class).
3. Think about the book you will
write review for.
1. Read AW Unit Six (pp.131-141)
for information on critique and
complete task 1-6 (prepare to
discuss in class).
2. Bring one scholarly article you’ve
read recently to class.
3. Select a book (for the book
review) and write your reading
plan for the book you chose last
week.
1. Read AW pp.141-154 and
complete task 7, 9, 10, 12. (bring
your answers to class).
2. Please review the first draft of
your partners’ essay, mark it for
any grammar, spelling and style
errors, and make final comments
about the essays ideas.
3. Continue reading your chosen
book.
Summary
Essay (1st
draft)
Due
Summary
Essay
Due
Critique
Essay (1st
draft)
Due
Course Development Project 10
7
M
2/18
Section1: Writing Book Review &
Data Commentary
Section2: Language Focus
(paraphrase, quote)
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
(watch the GWC Mini-workshop on
Cohesion and Coherence)
Handouts and Mini-Workshops —
Composition Program
1. Read Writing in the Social Critique
Science:
A
rhetoric
with Essay
Readings.pp.204-208(handouts)
Due
2. Read AW pp.77-90.
3. Continue reading your chosen
book.
8
M
2/25
Section1: Writing Book Review &
1. Read AW pp.90-104 and
Data Commentary
complete task9-11.
Section2: Language Focus
2. Students’ in-class presentation
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
about the book review.
(Students presentation of their book 3. Peer review of the first draft of
reviews, peer suggestion and
the book review (take home).
comments)
Spring Break No Classes
(3/3- 3/9)
Book
Review
(1st draft)
Due
9
M
3/11
Book
Review
Due
10
M
3/18
Section1: Writing Literature Review 1. Read GWC Writing Literature
& synthesis
Review.
Section2: Language focus
Handouts and Mini-Workshops
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
— Composition Program
(Watch one detailed sample of 2. Find three newspapers or
literature review and in class
academic articles and write a
discussion)
summary of at least one hundred
http://faculty.mwsu.edu/psychology/
and fifty words for each of them.
Laura.Spiller/Experimental/
Please type it and bring copies
sample_apa_style_litreview.pdf
for the other groups and the
instructor.
Section1: Writing Literature Review 1. Write a one page synthesis of the
Section2: Language focus
literature you have reviewed –
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
what are the topics and questions
(Peer-review of the first draft of the
that are raised? How many
literature review)
different viewpoints did you find?
What research has been done and
where does more research need to
be done?
2. Write a short literature review of
the three articles you chose last
week.
Literature
Review
(1st draft)
Due
Course Development Project 11
11
M
3/25
12
M
4/1
13
M
4/8
14
M
4/15
Section1: Constructing A Research 1. Read AW Unit Seven and
complete related tasks (bring your
Paper Ⅰ
Section2: Language Focus
answers to class).
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
2. Bring two research papers in your
(Brainstorming about the research
field to class.
topics)
3. Think about the topic of your
final research paper.
Section1:
Constructing
A 1. Read AW pp. 173-194, 210-217
Abstract and be ready to discuss
Research Paper Ⅱ
Section2: Language Focus
Task One and Two in class.
Section3:Writer’s Workshop
2. Design a research plan with as
(Library sources: Database &
many specific details as possible
Discussion about the research plan)
– the plan should be both realistic
and likely to produce data you can
use in your paper. Type up your
research plan (one full page
minimum – in an outline form
not in complete paragraphs)
and bring copies for the other
groups and the instructor.
3. Bring three articles from a central
journal in your field to class.
Section1:
Constructing
A 1. Read AW pp. 195-210.
2. Write the abstract of your final
Research Paper Ⅲ
Section2: Language Focus
research paper.
Section3: Writer’s Workshop
3. Figure out the databases in your
(Discuss about the abstract &
field and then try to use them.
Evaluating Sources of Information) 4. Bring the title of one of your
papers to class and be prepared to
discuss its final form and how it
got there.
5. Bring two articles from your field
and be prepared to discuss in
class.
Student Power Point Presentations
of Research Paper
15
M
4/22
Student Power Point Presentations
of Research Paper
Literature
Review
Due
Research
Plan
Due
Abstract
of
your
final
research
paper
Due
Course Development Project 12
3. Three Detailed Lesson Plans
Lesson Plans
Week11: Constructing a Research Paper Ⅰ
Materials
Assigned textbook
Handouts
Two papers each student brings in
Objectives
Get an overview of a research paper
Learn how to write the Methods and Results section in research paper
Know methods of choosing a research topic
Specific Procedures
Time
10min.
Content
Section1 (60 minutes)
Introduction: Overview of the Research Paper
Do the whole class discussion about the basic
content and format of a research paper. Ask
students to think about what are the basic
elements of a research paper. Let students
think about what they already learned and how
could they relate what they already know to
the new content.
Do a mini-presentation about the overview of
the research paper (what does IMRD stands
for, some linguistic features of IMRD ); draw
a content map of a research paper with
students; show them the typical organizational
pattern of the paper- IMRD format
(Introduction,
Methods,
Results,
and
Discussion).
40min.
Methods & Results
Purpose
1. Starting
with
a
warm-up activity often
gets
the
students
thinking and letting
them
actively
involving in the class
more quickly.
2. Relating what the
students already know
to what they are going
to learn is always a
strategy to elicit the
students’ interests.
3. Giving the students a
vivid picture of the
content can leave them
a deep impression and
make it easier for them
to remember.
1. It is necessary for the
Course Development Project 13
Briefly talk about the Methods & Results
section and the reason why Methods and
Results section are talked about firstly and go
through the tasks (task 3, 4, 6. AW 2.
pp.164-166) students did for this part. (20
min.)
Let the students do in-pair discussion about
the Methods section of the two papers they 3.
bring in, let them find the characteristics of the
Methods section in social science field and
share the discussion with the rest of the class.
(20 min.)
10min
A brief conclusion
1.
Give a conclusion of students’ presentations.
Highlight the important points to the whole 2.
class.
40min.
10min.
50min.
students to know the
reason for doing the
activity and how it
relates to the objective.
The small discussion
can make the students
feel more relative and
get involved in the
activity.
Reminding
the
students
the most
important thing they
should
pay
more
attention
to
is
necessary.
After
a
section,
conclude
what
is
covered and why it is
important.
Giving the students
time to check their
own understandings.
Ask students whether they have question or
not before the break.
Section2 (50minutes)
Language Focus (relate to Methods & 1. It is necessary for the
Results)
students
to
get
awareness
of
the
Go through Task Two (AW pp. 159-161) with
language features in
students and talk about in the whole class.
academic writing.
(15min.)
2. Talking about the
specific
language
Talk about the Imperatives in Research Paper;
features closely relate
remind students where they should pay
to the chosen genres
attention to. (15min.)
can leave students
strong impression.
Give a mini-presentation: Commentary in
Results Section. (10min.)
A brief conclusion
1. Reminding
the
students
the most
Conclude the language features in the
important thing before
Methods & Results section.
going to the next part.
Section3 (60minutes)
Brainstorm about the topics of the final 1. The activity will draw
Course Development Project 14
research paper
attention what needs to
be learned both for the
Give the students a handout about choosing
students
and
the
the research topic.
instructor.
Divide the class into small groups and let the 2. With
the
in-class
students brainstorm suggested topics about the
discussion and the
final research paper. Each student should give
useful
suggestions
other group members suggestions or
from the classmates,
comments on their topics. The students can
the students may have
evaluate the possibility of the chosen topics
a clearer idea of the
and some other related issues. Instructor will
topic of their final
go around answering the students’ questions.
research paper.
(15min.)
10min.
Every student would do the oral presentation
about his/her chosen topic of the final research
paper within the group. What are the
suggestions and comments he/she gets from
other members of his/her group. What does
he/she think the most helpful suggestions are
and how will those comments help him/her.
(35min.)
A brief conclusion
1. This
writing
assignment
gives
Conclude today’s class.
students an opportunity
to rethink about all the
Give students assignments:
suggestions
and
4. Read AW pp. 173-194, 210-214 Abstract
comments from the
5. Design a research plan with as many specific
classmates and the
details as possible – the plan should be both
instructor about the
realistic and likely to produce data you can use
topic of the final
in your paper. Type up your research plan
research paper, and
(one full page minimum – in an outline
then start preparing for
form not in complete paragraphs) and
writing.
bring copies for the other groups and the 2. Previewing what will
instructor.
be talked about next
6. Bring three articles from a central journal in
can help the students
your field to class.
get familiar with the
Tell students what will be talked about in next
future contents.
class.
Course Development Project 15
Relative Materials for Week11
Section1
1. Introduction: Overview of the Research Paper (for the mini-presentation)
The overall rhetorical shape of a typical RP is shown in figure 1.
Fig.1. Overall shape of a research paper (draw the content map in class and then
give following illustration)
This diagram gives a useful indication of the out-in-out or general-specific-general
movement of the typical RP. As the RP in English has developed over the last hundred
years or so, the four different sections have thus become identified with four different
purposes.
Introduction (I) The main purpose of the Introduction is to provide the rationale for
the paper, moving from general discussion of the topic to the particular question or
hypothesis being investigated. A secondary purpose is to attract interest in the topicand hence readers.
Methods (M) The Methods section describes, in various degrees of detail,
methodology, materials and procedures. This is the narrowest part of the RP.
Course Development Project 16
Results (R) In the Results section, the findings are described, accompanied by
variable amounts of commentary.
Discussion (D) The Discussion section offers a increasingly generalized account of
what has been learned in the study. This is usually done through a series of “points,”
at least some of which refer back to statements made in the Introduction.
As a result of these different purposes, the four sections have taken on different
linguistic characteristics. We summarize some of these in table 1. The first line of the
table shows, for instance, that the present tense is common in Introduction and
Discussions, but uncommon in Methods and Results.
TABLE 1. Frequencies of Selected Items in RP Sections
Introduction Methods
Results
Present tense
high
low
low
Past tense
mid
high
high
Passive voice
low
high
variable
Citations/references high
low
variable
Qualification
mid
low
mid
Commentary
high
low
variable
Discussion
high
mid
variable
high
high
high
2. Methods & Results (talk about the students’ answers to these tasks in class)
Task Three
Draft the first sentence of Mei- Lan’s Methods section. Remember to use format style.
You may wish to consider which of the following elements should be included.
1. Methodology
2. The purpose of the methodology
3. The sample
Task Four
Now write a Methods section of your own. If you do not have any suitable material,
you could- as an alternative – complete Mei-Lan’s Methods section for her. In this
case, assume that she has now completed the work.
One of us (John) interviewed a student planning her first research paper for her
masters in social work. Mei- Lan said that the provisional title for her research paper
was “Chinese Elderly Living in the United States: A problem-free Population?” She
said that she had chosen this topic because of some “prevailing myths” that the
Chinese communities would always look after their elderly and that such elderly
would not accept help from outsiders. She believed that certain traditional Chinese
attitudes, such as “filial piety,” were beginning to change in U.S. communities. She
added that all the research to date had been conducted in the large communities in big
Course Development Project 17
cities on the East and West Coasts. She wanted to study smaller communities in a
midwest town. John then asked her about methodology.
John Swales: How are you going to collect your data?
Mei-Lan: By face-to-face interviews. I want to do one-on-one interviews because I
think of other family members are there the interviewees will not reveal their deep
feelings and real problems.
JS: How will you find your subjects?
ML: I’ll use friends and acquaintances in the local Chinese community to introduce
me.
JS: Will you record the interviews?
ML: Yes, but of course I will ask permission first.
JS: Will you use English?
ML: The interviewees can use any language they prefer- Mandarin, Taiwanese, or
English. Whatever is most comfortable for them.
JS: How long do you plan the interviews to last, and do you have a fixed list of
questions?
ML: About an hour. I have a list of questions but I do not want to follow them very
exactly. I will use what sociologists call “semi-structured” interviews. Part planned,
part “go with the flow,” as the Americans say.
JS: Finally, how many people will you interview?
ML: Because of limited time and contacts, only about ten. So I will be doing a
qualitative analysis. There will not be enough subjects for statistics.
Task Six
We can conclude that Methods sections vary greatly in what we might call “speed.”
Type 1 Slow
Type 2 Fairly slow
Type 3 Fairly fast
Type 4 Fast
Here is part of a Methods section written by a Ph.D. student in physiology. What
“speed” would you give it?
Suppose Jun’s advisor suggested that it could be “speeded up” a little. What advice do
you have? There are also a couple of small mistakes toward the end. Can you correct
those as well?
Binding Assay and Down Regulation Study
Cells were cultures in 24-well plates. Receptor binding was determined by incubating
the intact cells with (3H)NMS in 1 ml buffer A at 4℃ or 37℃. Non- specific
binding was defined in the presence of atropine. Incubation was terminated by
washing the cells with ice-cold saline three times. Cells were scraped in 0.5ml water
Course Development Project 18
and suspensions were put into 5mm bio-safe scintillation fluid and then counted in a
Beckman liquid scintillation counter. For the study of down regulation, cells was
pre-incubated with 10mm MCCh for different period’s time and then washed with a
buffer A three times. The binding assay was performed as described above.
(Jun Yang, unedited)
Where on the “speed” scale (Types 1-4) would you place your own methods
descriptions and those typical of your field?
Section2
1. Task Two (talk about the students’ answers to the task in class)
Please read the following draft and answer the questions that follow.
Methods
In order to investigate the position of connectors, we examined their occurrence in
academic papers published in three journals. The sample consisted of all the main
articles appearing in the third issues of the 1992 volumes of College Composition and
Communication, English for Specific Purposes, and Research in the Teaching of
English. The sample amounted to about 230 running pages of text, comprising 12
articles (four from each journal). Each occurrence of a connector was identified,
highlighted, and then coded for one of three positions in a clause. If the connector was
the first or last word in the clause, it was designated “initial” or “final” respectively. If
it occurred in any other position, it was classified as “medial.” The following
examples illustrate the coding system:
A t-test was run;
However, the results were insignificant.
Initial
The results, however, were insignificant. Medial
The results were, however, insignificant. Medial
The results were insignificant, however.
Final
For the purpose of this study, the category of sentence connector was interpreted
quite broadly. We included items like unfortunately that are sometimes considered to
be sentence adverbs. We included such item as as it were and in turn, which have an
uncertain grammatical status. We also counted conjunctions like but as connectors
when they occurred as first elements in sentence, because they seemed to be
functioning as connectors in there contexts.
1. As is customary, the main tense in our Methods section is the past. In one
sentence, however, the main verb is in the present. Which one is it and why?
2. Consider the following subject- verb combinations from sentences in our
Methods section:
We examined
Each occurrence was identified
Course Development Project 19
It was designated
It was classified
The category was interpreted
We included
We included
We counted
The eight sentences describe what we did. As you can see, in four cases we
used the past passive, and in four cases we used we and the passive active.
Is this switching acceptable to you? Could you do this in your field? What
would your advisor or instructor recommend? DO you think we should have
been consistent? In other words, do you think we should have used either
the passive or we all the way through?
In a classic 1981 paper, Tarone et al. argue that the choice of passive versus we +
active is not always a “free” stylistic choice. According to Tarone et al., the passive in
the astrophysics papers they examined is used for standard procedures, while the use
of we signals something new or unexpected. Do you think this might be true of your
field?
1. Do you think the third paragraph should come before the second? What are
the advantages and disadvantages of such a change?
2. As it happens, our account of Methods is not quite accurate. In actual fact,
we conducted a pilot study on one journal. When that experience appeared
to work out, we extended the sample. Is there any good reason for
mentioning this part of the (true) story? When you write up a Methods
section, is it appropriate to simplify or straighten out the actual process? Is it
OK to “tidy up” in this way?
3. Finally, would you like to guess what our results were? What percentage of
connectors was initial, medial, and final?
2. Imperatives in Research Papers (give a short lecture)
Command-like imperative are common in textbooks, manuals, lectures, and labs.
Analyze the results in figure 1.
Complete the following sentences.
Notice the relationship between A and B.
Prepare 5cc of distillate.
Carry this total forward.
In RPs, however, imperatives are less commonly used because they may be
offensive. They may upset the fragile relationship between the writer and the reader,
since the reader (instructor, advisor, or someone outside) can be expected to have a
Course Development Project 20
status comparable to or higher than the author.
However, one verb is widely used in many RP fields. Indeed, it may account for
up to 50% of all the (occasional) uses of the imperative in research writing. As you
may have guessed by now, that verb is let.
Let p stand for the price- cost ratio.
Let N equal the number of consumers.
A few other imperative verbs can be found in mathematical arguments, such as
suppose, substitute, and assume.
A rather more difficult case occurs when you want to direct your readers’
attention to some particular point. We wanted the readers to know at this point in our
paper that we have elsewhere provided full details of our data.
In RPs would you accept imperative uses of the following, and, if so, can you
provide an example?
Notice
Consider
Imagine
Note
Refer
Compare
Recall
Observe
Take the case of, etc.
Disregard
If you think that an imperative might cause offense by being impolite, there are
easy ways of escape.
Imperative
Passive
Conditional
Now compare the results in table 4 and 5.
The results in table 4 and 5 can now be compared.
If we now compare the results in tables 4 and 5, we can see that…
3. Commentary in Results Sections (give a short lecture)
It is often said that the Results section of an RP should simply report the data that
has been collected; that is, it should focus exclusively on the present results.
Indeed, many of the books and manuals aiming at helping students and scholars to
write research papers offer this kind of advice. These books argue, particularly,
that all evaluation and commentary should be left until the Discussion. However,
research shows that this distinction between Results and Discussion is not as sharp
as commonly believed. For example, Thompson (1993) studied the Results
sections from 20 published biochemistry papers. Table 2 presents what she found.
This is part of Thompson’s conclusions:
Course Development Project 21
My research demonstrates that scientists- in this case biochemists- do not present
results only in a factual expository manner; they also employ a variety of rhetorical
moves to argue for the validity of scientific facts and knowledge claims.
TABLE 2. Commentary Found in Results Sections
Type of commentary
Justifying the methodology
Interpreting the results
Citing agreement with previous studies
Commenting on the data
Admitting difficulties in interpretation
Pointing out discrepancies
Calling for further research
Number of papers
(max. = 20)
19
19
11
10
8
4
0
Authors often include commentary because they are aware of their audience. They can
anticipate that their readers may be thinking, “Why did they use this method rather
than that one?” or “Isn’t this result rather strange?” For obvious reasons, authors may
not want to postpone responding to such imaginary questions and critical comments
until the final section.
Section 3 (give the students the following handout)
Choosing a Topic (Purdue Online Writing Lab source)
Summary: This handout provides detailed information about how to write research
papers including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding
sources.
Contributors:Jack Raymond Baker, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-12-01 03:09:07
The first step of any research paper is for the student to understand the assignment. If
this is not done, the student will often travel down many dead-end roads, wasting a
great deal of time along the way. Do not hesitate to approach the instructor with
questions if there is any confusion. A clear understanding of the assignment will allow
the student to focus on other aspects of the process, such as choosing a topic and
identifying one's audience.
Topic
A student will often encounter one of two situations when it comes to choosing a topic
for a research paper. The first situation occurs when the instructor provides a list of
topics from which the student may choose. These topics have been deemed worthy by
the instructor; therefore, the student should be confident in the topic he chooses from
the list. Many first-time researchers appreciate such an arrangement by the instructor
Course Development Project 22
because it eliminates the stress of having to decide upon a topic on their own.
However, the student may also find the topics that have been provided to be limiting;
moreover, it is not uncommon for the student to have a topic in mind that does not fit
with any of those provided. If this is the case, it is always beneficial to approach the
instructor with one's ideas. Be respectful, and ask the instructor if the topic you have
in mind would be a possible research option for the assignment. Remember, as a
first-time researcher, your knowledge of the process is quite limited; the instructor is
experienced, and may have very precise reasons for choosing the topics she has
offered to the class. Trust that she has the best interests of the class in mind. If she
likes the topic, great! If not, do not take it personally and choose the topic from the
list that seems most interesting to you.
The second situation occurs when the instructor simply hands out an assignment sheet
that covers the logistics of the research paper, but leaves the choice of topic up to the
student. Typically, assignments in which students are given the opportunity to choose
the topic require the topic to be relevant to some aspect of the course; so, keep this in
mind as you begin a course in which you know there will be a research paper near the
end. That way, you can be on the lookout for a topic that may interest you. Do not be
anxious on account of a perceived lack of authority or knowledge about the topic
chosen. Instead, realize that the process to becoming an experienced researcher in a
field takes practice.
Methods for choosing a topic
Thinking early leads to starting early. If the student begins thinking about possible
topics when the assignment is given, she has already begun the arduous, yet
rewarding, task of planning and organization. Once she has made the assignment a
priority in her mind, she may begin to have ideas throughout the day. Brainstorming is
often a successful way for students to get some of these ideas down on paper. Seeing
one's ideas in writing is often an impetus for the writing process. Though
brainstorming is particularly effective when a topic has been chosen, it can also
benefit the student who is unable to narrow a topic. It consists of a timed writing
session during which the student jots down—often in list or bulleted form—any ideas
that come to his mind. At the end of the timed period, the student will peruse his list
for patterns of consistency. If it appears that something seems to be standing out in his
mind more than others, it may be wise to pursue this as a topic possibility.
It is important for the student to keep in mind that an initial topic may not be the exact
topic about which she ends up writing. Research topics are often fluid, and dictated
more by the student's ongoing research than by the original chosen topic. Such
fluidity is common in research, and should be embraced as one of its many
characteristics.
Course Development Project 23
Lesson Plans
Week12: Constructing a Research Paper II
Materials
Assigned textbook
Handouts
Three Articles from a central journal in each student’s field (the students bring in)
On-line sources
Objectives
Learn how to write the Introduction and the Abstract sections of a research paper.
Pay attention to related language features of the Introduction and Abstract sections.
Know how to use on-line sources (databases) to facilitate writing.
Specific Procedures
Time
10min.
Content
Section1 (60 minutes)
Warm-up activity
Do the whole class discussion about the basic
content and format of the Introduction part of
a research paper.
30min.
Introduction Sections in Research Paper
Give a mini-presentation on what should be
focused on in the Introduction sections and
give the students the table of the typical
pattern that the Introduction sections of RPs
usually follow. (15 min.)
15min.
Let the students do group discussion about
Task One and Task Two (the exercises related
to the Introduction Sections) and then share
their discussions with the whole class. (15
min.)
Abstracts in Research Paper
Purpose
4. Warm-up activity often
gets
the
students
thinking and letting
them
actively
involving in the class
more quickly.
4. The brief introduction
initially serves as a
way to enhance the
students’
understanding of their
reading homework.
5. The small discussion
provides the students
an
opportunity to
practice what they just
learned and thus they
can have a better
understanding.
1. Providing the students
the most important
Course Development Project 24
5min.
40min.
10min.
20min.
30min.
Give a short lecture on Abstracts (What do
knowledge of the
Research Paper Abstracts look like, what are
chosen content.
the suggestions for writing the abstracts)
Conclusion
3. Always
give
the
students a conclusion
Conclude today’s class.
before
introducing
something new to help
Highlight the important points to the whole
them review what they
class.
have learned in the
current section.
Ask students whether they have questions or 4. Give the students time
not before the break.
to check their own
understandings.
Section2 (50minutes)
Language Focus (relate to Introduction & 3. It is necessary for the
Abstract section)
students to get the
awareness
of
the
Talk about Claiming Centrality and Tense
important
language
and Purpose Statements in Introduction
features
in
every
section and then let the students do in-pair
specific section of the
discussion about the opening sentences of the
research paper.
articles they bring in. (20min.)
4. By relating the general
principals
to
the
Talk about the Linguistic Features of Abstracts
students’ own fields
and then let students find whether these
can enhance their
features appear in the Abstract section of the
understanding.
articles they bring in or not. (20min.)
A brief conclusion
2. Reminding
the
students
the most
Conclude the language features in the
important thing before
Introduction & Abstract section.
going to the next part.
Section3 (60minutes)
Writers’ Workshop: Discuss the research 3. The activity will draw
plan for the final project
attention what needs to
be learned both for the
Divide the class into small groups and let the
students
and
the
students discuss the research plan they wrote
instructor.
for the final project. Each student should give 4. With
the
in-class
other group members suggestions or
discussion and the
comments on their works. The instructor will
useful
suggestions
go around answering students’ questions and
from the classmates,
ask them questions.
the students may revise
their research plans.
On-line Sources: Databases in Library
1. It is necessary for
Course Development Project 25
students to know the
databases in their own
fields and then make
good use of them.
10min.
Show the students how to use on-line sources,
especially how to use databases to find useful
sources for their research paper. (e.g.
Databases especially for Applied Linguistics)
A brief conclusion
3. This
writing
assignment serves as a
Conclude today’s class.
start of the students’
final project.
Give students assignments:
4. Let students really
6. Read AW pp. 195-210 and complete task 22,
practice what they
24. (bring your answers to class)
have learned in class.
7. Write the abstract of your final research paper. 5. Let students preview
8. Figure out the databases in your field and then
what will be talked
try to use them.
about next can help
them get familiar with
Tell students what will be talked about in next
the contents.
class.
Relative Materials for Week12
Section1
1. Introduction Sections in Research Paper (give a mini-presentation)
It is widely recognized that writing introductions is slow, difficult, and troublesome
for both native speakers as well we nonnative speakers. In some kinds of texts, such
as term papers pr case reports, it is possible to start immediately with a topic or thesis
statement
The purpose of this paper is to …
This paper describes and analyzes …
My aim in this paper is to …
In this paper, we report on …
However, this kind of opening is rare and unusual in an RP (probably under 10% of
published RPs start in this way). In fact, statements like those above typically come at
or near the end of an RP Introduction. Why is this? And what comes before?
We believe that the answer to these questions lies in two interconnected parts. The
first half of the answer lies in the need to appeal the readership. In a term paper, the
reader is set. (Indeed the reader is required to read and evaluate your paper!) On the
other hand, a paper that is designed for the external world- if only in theory- needs to
attract an audience. We can illustrate this by taking the case of one of those few
published papers that actually does start by describing the present research.
Course Development Project 26
Example:
Here is the opening sentence of the Introduction:
This study of the writing of 22 first graders and 13 third graders is concerned with
how children learn the rules of punctuation.
(Cordeiro 1988, 62)
The Cordeiro paper, “Children’s Punctuation: An Ananlysis of Errors in Period
Placement,” was published in a journal called Research in the Teaching of English. As
the title of this journal indicates, the journal covers several different research areas.
Doubtless, the very specific opening to the Cordeiro paper will appeal immediately to
those researchers actively involved in the topic. On the other hand, it is likely at the
same to “turn off” many other readers of the journal- readers who have no interest in
this precise research area.
We believe that we can best explain the second half of the answer by using a
metaphor- that of competition as it is used in ecology. Just as plants complete for light
and space, so writers of RPs complete for acceptance and recognition. In order to
obtain this acceptance and recognition, most writers use an organizational pattern that
contains the following three “moves” in table 1, in the order given.
In summary, then, the Introduction sections of RPs typically follow the pattern in
table 1 in response to two kinds of competition: competition for research space and
competition for readers- Create-a- Research-Space (or CARS) model.
TABLE 1. Moves in Research Paper Introductions
Move1
Move2
Move3
Establishing a research territory
a. By showing that the general research area is important, central,
interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional)
b. By introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area.
(obligatory)
Establishing a niche
a. By indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about
it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. (obligatory)
Occupying the niche
a. By outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research.
(obligatory)
b. By announcing principal findings. (optional)
c. By indicating the structure of the RP. (optional)
Course Development Project 27
2. Task One (in-class discussion)
Read the following Introduction and carry out the questions that follow.
The Position of Sentence Connectors in Academic English
C.B. Feak and J. M. Swales
Introduction
Many commentators have noted that sentence connectors (e.g., however) are an
important and useful element in expository and argumentative writing. Frequency
studies of their occurrence in academic English extend at least as far back as
Huddleston (1971). ESL writing textbooks have for many years regularly included
chapters on sentence connectors (e.g., Herbert, 1965). Most reference grammars deal
with their grammatical status, classification, meaning, and use. Some attention has
also been given to the position of sentence connectors in clauses and sentences. Quick
and Greenbaum (1973) observe (a) that the normal position is initial; (b) that certain
connectors, such as hence and overall, “are restricted, or virtually restricted, to initial
position” (p. 248); and (c) that medial positions are rare for most connectors, and final
positions even rare. The only attempt known to us explain differences in position on
semantic grounds is an unpublished paper by Salera (1976) discussed in CelceMurcia and Larsen-Freeman (1983). The Salera paper deals only with adversatives
like however and suggests that initial position reflects something contrary to
expectation, while medial position reflects a contrast that is not necessarily
unexpected. However, neither of these studies provides any descriptive evidence of
the actual positions of sentence connectors in academic texts. In the present paper, we
report on a preliminary study of sentence- connector position in a sample of twelve
published articles.
Questions:
1. Divide the text into the three basic moves.
2. Look at table 1 again. Where in our Introduction would you divide Move 1 into
1a and 1b?
3. What kind of Move 2 do we use?
4. What kind of Move 3a do we use?
5. Underline or highlight any words or expressions in sentences 1 through 3 used
to establish a research territory.
6. List the six citations used in this introduction. (Selera is cited twice.) Do you
have criticism of our review of the previous literature?
7. Where do these six citations occur in the sentence? What does this tell us?
Course Development Project 28
3. Task Two (in-class discussion)
Discuss the following issues with a group.
1. Do you think the “true” story behind our investigation should be built into the
Introduction? If so, where and how?
2. Alternatively, do you think it should be made part of the Discussion? Or would
the Acknowledgements be the best place to mention how the study came about?
Or a footnote? Or should it be omitted altogether?
3. Do members of your group have comparable experiences to relate- perhaps
stories about how pieces of research started almost by accident but are
described as if they were planned?
4. How would you answer the following question? In any investigation, certain
events take place in a certain order. Do you think it is necessary to keep to that
order when writing an RP, or is an author free to change that order to construct
a more rhetorically effective paper?
4. Abstracts (give a short lecture)
Purpose/Function:
Four uses for abstracts:
“Stand-along mini-texts”;
“Screening devices” that allow the reader to decide whether or not to read the
article;
“Previews”, interpretive frames that guide reading;
“Aids to indexing” by professional indexers for database services
Form:
Abstracts are typically composed of four parts (or rhetorical moves):
Statement of purpose
Description of methods
Results
Discussion
Abstracts should be brief- generally only a paragraph.
Suggestions for authors and students:
1. Title should include the major concepts in the article
2. The methodology should be described in such a way that the reader can
infer the purpose (i.e. to do X, we can…)
3. Emphasize results and conclusion
4. Statement of conclusions should emphasize the most important results
5. Past-tense verbs should be used to describe the results of the study;
present-tense verbs should be used to state general conclusions.
(Information adapted from Thomas Huckin, “Abstracting from Abstracts.” Academic
Course Development Project 29
Writing in Context: Implications and Applications. Ed. Martin Hewings. Birmingham,
UK: U of Birmingham P, 2001. 93-103.)
Section 2
1. Language Focus: Claiming Centrality
Note particularly the language used in the first sentences to express Move 1a.
The increasing interest in … has heightened the need for …
Of particular interest and complexity are … (emphatic inversion)
Here are some further “skeletal” examples of these strong opening statements. Notice
how many of them use the present perfect.
Recently, there has been growing interest in …
The possibility of … has generated wide interest in …
The development of … is a classic problem in …
The development of … has led to the hope that …
The … has become a favorite topic for analysis …
Knowledge of … has a great importance for …
The study of … has become an important aspect of …
A certain issue in … is …
The … has been extensively studied in recent years.
Many investigators have recently turned to …
The relationship between … has been investigated by many researchers.
Many recent studies have focused on …
In- class Discussion:
Look at the openings of up to three articles you bring in. All the articles should come
from the same journal. How many, if any, begin with a Move 1a? If any do, write
them down.
2. Language Focus: Tense and Purpose Statements
You have two choices on referring to your work:
1. Referring to the type of text- paper, article, thesis, report, research note, etc.
2. Referring to the type of investigation- experiment, investigation, study, survey,
etc.
If you choose to refer to the type of text, you must use the present tense. If you write,
Course Development Project 30
“The aim of this paper was to …，” it suggests that you are referring to an original
aim that has now changed.
If you choose to refer to the type of investigation, you can use either was or is.
However, there is an increasing tendency to choose the present, perhaps because it
makes the research seem relevant and fresh and new. The “rule” then is to opt for the
present.
3. Language Focus: Linguistic Features of Abstracts
On the basis of her research into abstracts from a wide range of fields, Naomi Graetz
(1985) gives these linguistic specifications as characteristic of abstracts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The use of full sentences
The use of the past tense
The use of impersonal passive
The absence of negatives
The avoidance of “abbreviation, jargon, symbols and other language
shortcuts that might lead to confusion.”
Despite Graetz’s second conclusion (abstracts use the past tense), it seems clear that
tense usage in abstracts is fairly complicated. First, the conclusions are nearly always
in the present. Second, RP summary abstracts often use the present or present perfect
for their opening statements. Third, there appears to be considerable disciplinary and
individual tense variation with sentences dealing with results.
In-class Discussion:
Analyze three abstracts from a central journal in your field you bring to class in terms
of the five characteristics proposed by Graetz. To what extent do your findings agree
with hers? Summarize your findings in class, perhaps in the form of a table.
Section 3
Databases that often used in Applied Linguistics:
http://www.libraries.psu.edu/psul/databases.html#e-content
ERIC
Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts (LLBA)
Course Development Project 31
Lesson Plans
Week13: Constructing a Research Paper Ⅲ
Materials
Assigned textbook
Handouts
Articles each student brings in
Sample research article
On-line sources (GWC)
Objectives
Learn how to write the Discussion section and the Title of a research paper.
Pay attention to related language features of the Discussion section and the Title.
Know some useful strategies for drafting & revising academic writing.
Get a full picture of a sample research paper.
Specific Procedures
Time
10min.
Content
Section1 (60 minutes)
Warm-up activity
Do the whole class discussion about the basic
content and format of the Discussion part of a
research paper.
30min.
Discussion Sections in Research Paper
Give a mini-presentation on what should be
focused on in the Discussion sections and give
the students the table of the typical pattern that
the Discussion sections of RPs usually follow.
(15 min.)
15min.
Purpose
5. Warm-up activity often
gets
the
students
thinking and letting
them
actively
involving in the class
more quickly.
6. The brief introduction
initially serves as a
way to enhance the
students’
understanding of their
reading homework.
7. The small discussion
provides the students
an opportunity to think
about what they should
pay attention to.
Let the students do group discussion about the
Limitations in Discussions and share their
discussions with the whole class, and then the
instructor gives a conclusion of the discussion
by pointing out the important focus. (15 min.)
Title in Research Paper
2. Providing the students
Course Development Project 32
Give a short lecture on Title (What are the
requirements for good RP titles, Colons in
titles).
5min.
40min.
10min.
20min.
the most important
knowledge of the
chosen content.
3. Relating
the
new
Talk about the title of one of the students’
information to the
papers with their classmates and discuss the
students’ own works
final form of the title and how it got there.
can help them better
understand the new
knowledge.
Conclusion
5. Always
give
the
students a conclusion
Conclude today’s class.
before
introducing
something new to help
Highlight the important points to the whole
them review what they
class.
have learned in the
current section.
Ask students whether they have questions or 6. Give the students time
not before the break.
to check their own
understandings.
Section2 (50minutes)
Language Focus (relate to Discussion section 5. It is necessary for the
and Strategies for Drafting & Revising
students to get the
Academic Writing)
awareness
of
the
important
language
Talk about Levels of Generalization in
features
in
every
Discussion section and then let the students do
specific section of the
in-pair discussion about the sentences of the
research paper.
articles they bring in. (20min.)
6. By relating the general
principles
to
the
Talk about Strategies for Drafting & Revising
students’ own fields
Academic Writing by using the on-line
can enhance their
sources of GWC. (20min.)
understanding.
7. Providing the students
some useful strategies
to
facilitate
their
writing.
A brief conclusion
3. Reminding
the
students
the most
Conclude this part.
important thing before
going to the next part.
Section3 (60minutes)
Discuss the abstract of the final project
5. With
the
in-class
discussion and the
Divide the class into small groups and let the
useful
suggestions
Course Development Project 33
30min.
10min.
students discuss the abstract they wrote for the
final project. Each student should give other
group members suggestions or comments on
their works. The instructor will go around
answering students’ questions and ask them
questions.
Evaluating Sources of Information
2.
from the classmates,
the students may have
a better understanding
about their final project
and then know how to
revise.
It is necessary for the
students to know how
Talk about how to evaluate sources of
to evaluate and select
information
(evaluating
bibliographic
qualified sources for
citations, evaluation during reading, print vs.
their writing.
Internet).
3. It is necessary to
provide students the
Briefly talk about a sample research paper,
sample of a good
point out what should be focused on.
research paper.
A brief conclusion
6. Let students really
practice what they
Conclude today’s class.
have learned in class.
7. Let students preview
Give students assignments:
what will be talked
Prepare for the in-class presentation about the
about next can help
final project.
them get familiar with
the contents.
Tell students what will be talked about in next
class.
Relative Materials for Week13
Section1
1. Discussion Sections in Research Paper (give a mini-presentation)
Discussion should be more than summaries. They should go beyond the results. They
should be
More theoretical
Or
More abstract
Or
More general
Or
More integrated with the field
Or
More connected to the real world
AND, if possible, some
combination of these.
Course Development Project 34
Or
More concerned with implications
Or applications
Discussions can be viewed as presenting a series of points. Typically, they are
arranged in table1.
TABLE 1. Discussion Moves
Move 1 Points to consolidate your research space (obligatory)
Move 2 Points to indicate the limitations of your study (optional but common)
Move 3 Points to identify useful areas of further research (optional and only
common in some areas)
Move 1 is usually quite extensive, and Moves 2 and 3 are often quite short. At this
point, you might want to observe that Move 1 and the later moves seem selfcontradictory. Why, you may ask, build up something in order to apparently attack it
later? Authors can present themselves very effectively by both
1. highlighting intelligently the strengths of the study
And
2. highlighting intelligently its weaknesses.
Indeed, Moves 2 and 3 can also be used to identify and open up future research space
for authors and their colleagues. However, this is less likely to happen.
2. Limitations in Discussions (in-class discussion)
Limitations of Research Scope
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
It should be noted that this study has examined only …
This analysis has concentrated on …
The findings of this study are restricted to …
This study has addressed only the question of …
The limitations of this study are clear: …
We would like to point out that we have not …
Limitations in Conclusion
Below are some typical openings for statements that firmly state that certain
conclusion should not be drawn.
1. However, the findings do not imply …
2. The results of this study cannot be taken as evidence for …
3. Unfortunately, we are unable to determine from this data …
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4. The lack of … means that we cannot be certain …
We said earlier that Move 2s are optional in Discussions. If you feel it is unnecessary
to comment on your work in either of the above two ways, a useful alternative is to
place the limitation in an opening phrase.
Notwithstanding its limitations, this study does suggest …
Despite its preliminary character, the research reported here would seem to
indicate …
However exploratory, this study may offer some insight into …
3. Title in Research Paper (give a short lecture)
Although the title comes first in an RP, it may sometimes be written last. Its final form
may be long delayed and much thought about and argued over. Authors know that
titles are important, they know that the RP will be known by its title, and they know
that a successful title will attract readers while an unsuccessful one will discourage
readers.
What then are the requirements for good RP titles? In general, we suggest the
following three.
1. The title should indicate the topic of the study.
2. The title should indicate the scope of the study (i.e., neither overstating nor
understanding its significance).
3. The title should be self- explanatory to readers in the chosen area.
Colons are widely used in titles. One of the colon’s typical functions is to separate
ideas in such combinations as the following:
Before the Colon: After the Colon
Problem: Solution
General: Specific
Topic: Method
Major: Minor
Section2
1. Language Focus: Levels of Generalization （ give short lecture & in-class
discussion）
In the Results sections, statements may be quite specific and closely tied to the data.
For example,
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As can be seen in Table1, 84% of the students performed above the 12th- grade
level.
Seven out of eight experimental samples resisted corrosion longer that the
controls.
In the Discussion, we usually expect something in between these two levels. One
common device is to use one of the following “phrases of generality.”
Overall
In general
On the whole
In the main
With … exception (s)
Overall, the results indicate that students performed above the 12th- grade level.
The overall results indicate
The results indicate, overall, that
In general, the experimental samples resisted …
With one exception, the experimental samples resisted …
2. Strategies for Drafting & Revising Academic Writing (give mini- presentation)
On-line sources from GWC
http://composition.la.psu.edu/resources/graduate-writing-center/Drafting%20and%20
Revising%20John%202010.pdf
Section3
1. Evaluating Sources of Information (handouts)
a. Evaluating Sources: Overview
Summary: Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research
activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations,
aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. Internet sources, and evaluating
internet sources.
Contributors:Dana Lynn Driscoll, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17 06:12:15
The world is full of information to be found--however, not all of it is valid, useful, or
accurate. Evaluating sources of information that you are considering using in your
writing is an important step in any research activity.
The quantity of information available is so staggering that we cannot know everything
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about a subject. For example, it's estimated that anyone attempting to research what's
known about depression would have to read over 100,000 studies on the subject. And
there's the problem of trying to decide which studies have produced reliable results.
Similarly, for information on other topics, not only is there a huge quantity available
but a very uneven level of quality. You don't want to rely on the news in the headlines
of sensational tabloids near supermarket checkout counters, and it's just as hard to
know how much to accept of what's in all the books, magazines, pamphlets,
newspapers, journals, brochures, web sites, and various media reports that are
available. People want to convince you to buy their products, agree with their
opinions, rely on their data, vote for their candidate, consider their perspective, or
accept them as experts. In short, you have to sift and make decisions all the time, and
you want to make responsible choices that you won't regret.
Evaluating sources is an important skill. It's been called an art as well as work--much
of which is detective work. You have to decide where to look, what clues to search for,
and what to accept. You may be overwhelmed with too much information or too little.
The temptation is to accept whatever you find. But don't be tempted. Learning how to
evaluate effectively is a skill you need both for your course papers and your life.
When writing research papers, you will also be evaluating sources as you search for
information. You will need to make decisions about what to search for, where to look,
and once you've found material on your topic, if it is a valid or useful source for your
writing.
b. Evaluating Bibliographic Citations
Summary: Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research
activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations,
aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. Internet sources, and evaluating
internet sources.
Contributors:Dana Lynn Driscoll, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17 06:12:24
When searching for information in library catalogues and online article databases
such as EbscoHost or Proquest Direct, you will first find a bibliographic citation entry.
A bibliographic citation provides relevant information about the author and
publication as well as short summary of the text.
Before you read a source or spend time hunting for it, begin by looking at the
following information in the citation to evaluate whether it's worth finding or reading.
Consider the author, the title of the work, the summary, where it is, and the timeliness
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of the entry. You may also want to look at the keywords to see what other categories
the work falls into. Evaluate this information to see if it is relevant and valid for your
research.
c. Evaluation During Reading
Summary: Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research
activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations,
aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. Internet sources, and evaluating
internet sources.
Contributors:Dana Lynn Driscoll, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17 06:12:32
After you have asked yourself some questions about the source and determined that
it's worth your time to find and read the source, you can evaluate the material in the
source as you read through it.
•Read the preface--what does the author want to accomplish? Browse through the
table of contents and the index. This will give you an overview of the source. Is your
topic covered in enough depth to be helpful? If you don't find your topic discussed,
try searching for some synonyms in the index.
•Check for a list of references or other citations that look as if they will lead you to
related material that would be good sources.
•Determine the intended audience. Are you the intended audience? Consider the tone,
style, level of information, and assumptions the author makes about the reader. Are
they appropriate for your needs?
•Try to determine if the content of the source is fact, opinion, or propaganda. If you
think the source is offering facts, are the sources for those facts clearly indicated?
•Do you think there's enough evidence offered? Is the coverage comprehensive? (As
you learn more and more about your topic, you will notice that this gets easier as you
become more of an expert.)
•Is the language objective or emotional?
•Are there broad generalizations that overstate or oversimplify the matter?
•Does the author use a good mix of primary and secondary sources for information?
•If the source is opinion, does the author offer sound reasons for adopting that stance?
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(Consider again those questions about the author. Is this person reputable?)
•Check for accuracy.
How timely is the source? Is the source 20 years out of date? Some information
becomes dated when new research is available, but other older sources of information
can be quite sound 50 or 100 years later.
Do some cross-checking. Can you find some of the same information given
elsewhere?
How credible is the author? If the document is anonymous, what do you know
about the organization?
Are there vague or sweeping generalizations that aren't backed up with evidence?
Are arguments very one-sided with no acknowledgement of other viewpoints?
d. Evaluating Print vs. Internet Source
Summary: Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research
activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations,
aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. Internet sources, and evaluating
internet sources.
Contributors:Dana Lynn Driscoll, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-06-22 10:50:18
With the advent of the World Wide Web, we are seeing a massive influx of digital
texts and sources. Understanding the difference between what you can find on the
web and what you can find in more traditional print sources is key.
Some sources such as journal or newspaper articles can be found in both print and
digital format. However, much of what is found on the Internet does not have a print
equivalent, and hence, has low or no quality standards for publication. Understanding
the difference between the types of resources available will help you evaluate what
you find.
Publication Process
Print Sources: Traditional print sources go through an extensive publication process
that includes editing and article review. The process has fact-checkers, multiple
reviewers, and editors to ensure quality of publication.
Internet Sources: Anyone with a computer and access to the Internet can publish a
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website or electronic document. Most web documents do not have editors,
fact-checkers, or other types of reviewers.
Authorship and Affiliations
Print Sources: Print sources clearly indicate who the author is, what organization(s) he
or she is affiliated with, and when his or her work was published.
Internet Sources: Authorship and affiliations are difficult to determine on the Internet.
Some sites may have author and sponsorship listed, but many do not.
Sources and Quotations
Print Sources: In most traditional publications, external sources of information and
direct quotations are clearly marked and identified.
Internet Sources: Sources the author used or referred to in the text may not be clearly
indicated in an Internet source.
Bias and Special Interests
Print Sources: While bias certainly exists in traditional publications, printing is more
expensive and difficult to accomplish. Most major publishers are out to make a profit
and will either not cater to special interest groups or will clearly indicate when they
are catering to special interest groups.
Internet Sources: The purpose of the online text may be misleading. A website that
appears to be factual may actually be persuasive and/or deceptive.
Author Qualifications
Print Sources: Qualifications of an author are almost always necessary for print
sources. Only qualified authors are likely to have their manuscripts accepted for
publication.
Internet Sources: Even if the author and purpose of a website can be determined, the
qualifications of the author are not always given.
Publication Information
Print Sources: Publication information such as date of publication, publisher, author,
and editor are always clearly listed in print publications.
Internet Sources: Dates of publication and timeliness of information are questionable
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on the internet. Dates listed on websites could be the date posted, date updated, or a
date may not be listed at all.
2. Sample Research Article (with abstract) (go through this sample in class)
Amato, P.R., Johnson, D.R., Booth, A. & Rogers, S.J. (2003). Continuity and change
in martital quality between 1980 and 2000. Journa of Marriage and Family, 65 (1),
1-22.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00001.x/full