Gender Equity in Education:
Are We There Yet?
Barbara Bitters
AAUW Meeting
Feb 21, 2013
FVTC, Appleton, WI
1954
1964
1971
1976
1972
1973
1977
1978
1984
1985-96
1997-2005
2006-2012
1974
1979
1975
TITLE IX
No person shall on the basis of sex,
be excluded from participation in,
be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under
any educational programs or activity
receiving federal financial
assistance.
Discuss
What was it like for students, staff, and
employers before Title IX?
K-12 schools
2 Year Colleges
4 Year Colleges
Graduate Schools
Key Dates
Title IX signed by Richard Nixon, July
1972
Regulations Issued June 4, 1975 and
became effective on July 21, 1975.
(Renumbered and re-issued May 9, 1980)
Self Evaluation by July 21, 1976
Single-Sex Regulations Issued effective
on November 24, 2006.
Athletics Key Dates
September 1975 Letter to Recipients
with guidance re: athletics
Three Year Transition Period for
Athletics expired on July 21, 1978.
Intercollegiate Athletics: Sex
Discrimination “Policy Interpretation”
December 11, 1979
January 1996-3 part test clarification
July 11, 2003-Further Clarification
March 17, 2005 “User’s Guide to Student Interest Surveys under Title IX”
.
(User’s Guide) and related technical report, that were issued by the Department
March 27, 2008 Title IX Athletics Three-Part
Test affirmed for high school.
September 17, 2008 "Dear Colleague" letter
which athletic activities count.
"Dear Colleague" letter (April 20, 2010) part
3 of the 3 part test. With this letter, the Department is withdrawing the
“Additional Clarification of Intercollegiate Athletics Policy: Three Part Test – Part Three” (2005
Additional Clarification) and all related documents accompanying it, including the “User’s Guide to
Student Interest Surveys under Title IX” (User’s Guide) and related technical report, that were issued
by the Department on March 17, 2005.
Three Part Test provides the following three
compliance options:
1. Whether intercollegiate level participation opportunities for male and female students are
provided in numbers substantially proportionate to their respective enrollments; or
2. Where the members of one sex have been and are underrepresented among
intercollegiate athletes, whether the institution can show a history and continuing
practice of program expansion which is demonstrably responsive to the developing
interests and abilities of the members of that sex; or
3. Where the members of one sex are underrepresented among intercollegiate athletes, and
the institution cannot show a history and continuing practice of program expansion, as
described above, whether it can be demonstrated that the interests and abilities of the
members of that sex have been fully and effectively accommodated by the present
program.
If an institution has met any part of the three-part test, OCR will determine that the
institution is meeting this requirement.”
http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/publications.html#TitleIX
Sexual Harassment Key Dates
March 13, 1997, “Sexual Harassment
Guidance: Harassment of Students by School Employees,
Other Students, or Third Parties,”
January, 2001 REVISED Sexual
Harassment Guidance: Harassment of Students by
School Employees, Other Students, or Third Parties
Oct 26, 2006, Dear Colleague Letter on
obligations to protect students from student-on-student harassment
April 4, 2011, Dear Colleague Letter-prevent
sexual harassment and sexual violence.
Single Sex Key Dates
January 31, 2007 Notification of New
Single-Sex Regulations. "Dear
Colleague" letter from Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights
Stephanie Monroe, notifying recipients of the new single-sex
regulations,
October 25, 2006, revised Title IX
regulations provide additional flexibility to recipients to offer
non-vocational elementary and secondary education on a singlesex basis while ensuring that non-vocational single-sex education is
provided consistent with the nondiscrimination requirements of Title
IX.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, ESEA
Reauthorization
Enforcement
Complaint Triggered
Compliance Review
Litigation
Office for Civil Rights, US Department
of Education.
Significant Challenges
OCR Must Enforce-(Adams v. Califano 19701987)
Title IX Coverage of Employment
(North Haven v. Bell (6-3)
1979)
Title IX Program Specificity or Institution Wide
(Grove City College vs. Bell, 1984 )
Many Athletic Cases and Administrative
Challenges-most recent the Athletic Commission
June 6, 2005 Supreme Court denied certiorari today in National
Wrestling Coaches Association v. United States Department of
Education.
Significant Challenges
Sexual Harassment is unlawful sex
discrimination under Title IX (Franklin v.
Gwinnett (County Public Schools)
Athletics 3-part test challenges and the
controversial guidance on email surveys
to determine interest. March 2005
Retaliation for a complaint is not lawful
(Jackson, 2005)
2006 Regulation Revision-Single Sex
Education
What Does Title IX Cover?
Admissions
Access to Courses or Programs

Includes Physical Education, career
and technical education, etc.
Counseling
Student Rules and Policies
Treatment of Students

Pregnant or Parenting Students
Title IX Covers cont.
Financial Assistance
Student Housing
Athletics
Co-Curricular and Extra-Curricular
Activities
Employment Practices
Sexual Harassment of Students and
Employees
Title IX PROCEDURAL
Requirements:
Notification of Policy and Assurance
Self-Evaluation
Appointment of a Responsible Person


Title IX Coordinator
Record Keeping
Development and Dissemination of
Policy
-Operational Guidelines
Grievance Procedure
Role of the Title IX
Coordinator
Preventative
Promotional
Advocating the Elimination of Bias
Ongoing Procedural Process
Discuss
What changes and
accomplishments in the last
35 years do you attribute to
Title IX?
Data Suggests
Changes,
Accomplishments, and
Challenges (some old, some
new, and some returning)
NCWGE-Title IX at 25 and Title IX at 30.
Subject
2002 (at 30)
1997 (at 25)
Access to Higher Education
Athletics
Career Education
Employment
B
C+
D
C-
BC
C
C-
Learning Environment
Math and Science
Sexual Harassment
Standardized Testing
Technology
CBC
C
D+
CC+
D+
C
Not graded
Treatment of Pregnant and
Parenting Teens
C+
C+
Staff
Employment
Chief State School Officers in
States or Territories
1972
1985
1991
2007
2012
2012-CCSSO web
Female
2 (4%)
5 (10%)
9 (18%)
20 (40%)
21 (36%)
Male
48
45
41
30
37
Local School Boards
Percentage of School Board position
held by women:
1974
11.9%
1983
37.1%
1990
33.7%
2007
38.9%
2011
44.0%
www.nsba.org/Board-Leadership/Surveys/School-Boards-Circa-2010
Higher Education
Faculty
Female
1870 1970 1990 2004 2011
12%
23% 33% 39% 48%
Male
88%
2011-Table 263 Digest of Ed Stats
77% 67%
61% 52%
Education Administration Degrees
Year
1955
Male
87%
Female
13%
1971
91%
08%
Table 290, 2011 Digest
Table 269, 2004 Digest
1982
60%
40%
2004
34%
66%
2010
38%
62%
Principals by Sex
80
70
60
50
female
male
40
30
20
10
0
1988
2004
2008
Principals Salary
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Females
Males
1988 2000 2008
Table 83, 2005 Digest
Percent of K-12 Teachers by Sex
80
70
60
50
40
Females
30
Males
20
10
0
1971
1986
2004
http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=28
2008
Average PK-12 Salaries, 2008
Base
Ext.Contract
Merit/bonus
Summer
Outside Job
OJ-summer
Table 80, 2012 Digest of Ed Stats.
Males
$50,630
3,920
2,360
3,140
6,540
5,170
Females
$49,300
1,940
1,940
2,300
4,530
3,940
Education Achievement
SAT Score Averages by Sex
1972
Male
Female
Verbal
454
452
1990
Male
Female
429
419
499
455
2005
Male
Female
513
505
538
504
500
531
482
495
500
496
2011 Male
Female
Table 127 Digest 2005
Table 154 Digest 2011
Math Writing
505
461
Table 130 Digest 2005, and Table 157 Digest 2012
ACT Score Averages by Sex
Composite
English
Reading
Math
Social
Studies
Natural
Science
1970 Male
20.3
17.6
ND
21.1
20.3
21.6
1970
Female
19.4
19.4
ND
18.8
19.0
20.0
1989
Male
19.3
17.8
ND
18.3
18.1
22.6
1989
Female
18.0
18.9
ND
16.1
16.4
20.0
2004
Male
21.0
19.9
21.1
21.3
ND
21.3
2004
Female
20.9
20.8
21,5
20.2
ND
20.5
2012
Male
21.2
20.2
21.2
21.7
ND
21.4
20.5
21.0
20.9
21.4
20.6
ND
20.5
Average scale scores in reading
for students
300
250
9 yr old M
200
13 Yr old M
17 Yr old M
150
9 yr old F
100
13 yr old F
17 yr old F
50
0
1971
1990
page 18 Trends, Table 127, 2012 Digest
1996
2009
Average scale scores in writing
300
250
males 4th
200
males 8th
males 11th
150
females 4th
100
females 8th
females 11th
50
0
1984
1990
Page 18 Trends, Table 135, 2011 Digest
1996
2007
Average scale scores in
mathematics for students
350
9 yr old males
300
13 yr old males
250
200
17 yr old males
150
9 yr old females
100
50
13 yr old females
0
17 yr old females
1973
1990
1996
Trends page 20, Table 141, 2011 Digest…
2008
Average scale scores in science
350
9 yr old males
300
13 yr old males
250
200
17 yr old males
150
9 yr old females
100
50
13 yr old females
0
17 yr old females
1973
Trends page 20
1990
1996
2009
Dropout Rate
percentage of males and females who are drop outs
Year
1972
1990
2004
2010
Male
14.1%
12.3%
11.6%
8.5%
Female
15.3%
12.3%
9.0%
6.3%
Trends page 34 , table 104-Digest 2005, Table 116, Digest 2010
Career and Technical
Education
Career Clusters NTO for
Concentrator Males
90
80
70
60
Female
Male
PS Female
PS Male
50
40
30
20
10
0
Education
Health
Hospitality
Human
and Training Sciences and Tourism Services
Career Clusters NTO for
Concentrator Females
100
90
80
70
60
Females
Males
PS Female
PS Male
50
40
30
20
10
0
Transportation Architecture & Manufacturing
and logistics Construction
STEM
Not NTO Post-Secondary
Concentrators by Cluster
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
female
male
PS female
PS male
Overall Concentrator Enrollment
Secondary Female
Post-Secondary Female
46.1
56.4
Secondary Male
Post-Secondary Male
53.9
43.6
Athletic Opportunities
Athletic Opportunities K-12
Females
1972
250,000
7%
3.6 Million
of all athletes
Males
Title IX at 40, page 9 http://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/TitleIX-print.pdf
2011
3.2 Million
41%
4.5 Million
of all athletes
Athletic Opportunities College
Females
Males
1972
29,977
2010
193,232
2% of schools’ athletic
budgets
40% of total money
spent on athletics
170,384
256,344
SOURCE: NCAA Sports Sponsorship and Participation Report, 1971-72–2010-11.
Enrollment and Degrees
Higher Education
Student Enrollment Table 198 Digest
Female
1870 1970 1990 2004 2011
21% 41% 54% 57% 57%
Male
79%
59%
46%
43%
43%
AA Degrees
Female
Male
1870 1970 1990 2004 2011
ND
43% 57% 62% 62%
ND
57% 43% 38% 38%
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Earned Degrees Conferred,
Chart 246
Table 297, 2012 Digest of Ed Stats
BA Degrees
Female
Male
1870 1970 1990 2004 2011
15%
43% 53% 59% 57.4%
85%
57% 47% 41% 42.6%
SOURCE: 2004 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Earned Degrees Conferred, Chart
246
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The Condition of Education 2012
(NCES 2012-045), Table A-47-2. and Table 300.
Masters Degrees
Female
Male
1870 1970 1990 2004 2010
ND
40% 52% 60% 62.6%
ND
60% 48% 40% 37.4%
SOURCE: 2004 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Earned Degrees Conferred, Chart
246
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The Condition of Education 2012
(NCES 2012-045), Table A-47-2. and Table 303, U.S. Department of Education
First Professional Degrees
Female
Male
1870 1970 1990 2004 2010
ND
5%
36% 51% 49%
ND
95%
64% 49% 51%
SOURCE: 2004 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Earned Degrees Conferred,
Chart 246
2010, Table 309, U.S. Department of Education
Doctorate Degrees
Female
Male
1870 1970 1990 2004 2010
ND
13% 37% 48% 52%
ND
87% 63% 52% 48%
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics, Earned Degrees
Conferred, Chart 246
Table 306, 2012 U.S. Department of Education
Percent Agriculture &
Natural Resources BA
1978
M
F
70 30
1988
M
F
62 38
2004
M
F
52
48
2010
M
F
51 49
Bachelor's degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by sex, race/ethnicity, and field of study:
2009-10
Table 301, US Department of Education.
Percent Business BA
1978
M
F
65 35
1988
M
F
55 45
2004
M
F
50 50
2010
M
F
51 49
Bachelor's degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by sex, race/ethnicity, and field of study: 2009-10
Table 301, US Department of Education.
78 & 88 Business Management
Table 262-Digest 2005
Percent Engineering BA
1978
M
F
89 11
1988
M
F
85
15
2004
M
F
80 20
2010
M
F
82 18
Table 262 Digest 2005
SWE notes a decline from the 1990’s
Bachelor's degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by sex, race/ethnicity, and field of study: 2009-10
Table 301, US Department of Education.
% Physical Sciences BA
1978
M
F
77 23
1988
M
F
71
29
2004
M
F
58 42
2010
M
F
59 41
Table 262 Digest 2005
Bachelor's degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by sex, race/ethnicity, and field of study:
2009-10
Table 301, US Department of Education.
Veterinary
1978
M
F
66 34
1988
2006
2010
M
F
M
F M
F
43
56 22
78 22 78
2006 http://www.aavmc.org/students_admissions/documents/HistoricalMinorityEnrollmentStatistics_000.pdf
Table 309, Degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions in selected professional fields, by sex,
race/ethnicity, and field of study: 2009-10 US Department of Education.
Percent Dentistry Degrees
1978
M
F
86 14
1988
M
F
69
31
2004
M F
58 42
2010
M
F
54 46
Table 256 Digest 2005
Table 309 , Degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions in selected
professional fields, by sex, race/ethnicity, and fiel d of study: 2009-10 US
Department of Education.
Percentage Law Degrees
1978
M
F
70 30
1988
M
F
58 42
2004
M
F
51 49
2010
M
F
53 47
2004 Table 256 Digest 2005
Table 309 , Degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions in selected professional fields, by sex,
race/ethnicity, and field of study: 2009-10 US Department of Education.
Percentage Medicine Degrees
1978
M
F
77 23
1988
M
F
65 35
2004
M
F
54 46
2010
M
F
52 48
2004 Table 256 Digest 2005
Table 309 Degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions in selected professional fields, by sex,
race/ethnicity, and field of study: 2009-10 US Department of Education.
In Summary
Governmental Efforts
Civil Rights Laws-OCR
Program Laws




Sex Equity Technical Assistance (EAC/ SEA/ LEA/
IHE)
Women’s Educational Equity Act-Advisory Council,
Resource Center, Grants
Career and CTE-Career Education Incentive 1975
and VEA of 1976 to current Perkins IV
Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM)
Research-ED and NSF
One Year of Gender Equity
Funding in Wisconsin FY 92
Funding for Sex Equity Assistance is entirely federal
(and always has been)
$ 70,200
Title IV funding (down from $183,355 in FY 80)
$241,636
Carl Perkins Vocational Equity
For a total of $311,836, representing:
$729
per district (428)
$154
per school (2028)
$0.38
per student (814,671)
$5.19
per professional staff member (60,061)
Resources
Title IX at 40: Working to Ensure
Gender Equity in Education
Title IX at 30: Report Card on Gender Equity. A
Report of the National Coalition for Women and
Girls in Education, June 2002
Title IX at 25: A Report of the National Coalition
for Women and Girls in Education, 1997.
National Coalition for Women and Girls in
Education (NCWGE) http://www.ncwge.org/
OCR Reading Room
www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/publications.html
Title IX Legal Manual-DOJ
http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/cor/coord/ixlegal.php
Association for Gender Equity Leadership in
Education (AGELE)
www.agele.org
National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity (NAPE)
www.napequity.org
National Women’s Law Center (NWLC)
http://www.nwlc.org/our-issues/education-% 2526title-ix
Equity Assistance Centers (EAC)
http://www2.ed.gov/programs/equitycenters/index.html
EAC Grantees
http://www2.ed.gov/programs/equitycenters/11awards.
html
Feminist Majority Foundations
http://www.feminist.org/education/
Digest of Education Statistics
http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/
Women’s Sports Foundation
http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/
American Association of University Women
http://www.aauw.org/
HANDBOOK FOR Achieving Gender
Equity through Education
http://www.feminist.
org/education/hand
book.asp