LECTURE 2
SOCIAL COGNITION
Chapter 3
1) Administration
2) Social Cognition
-
Schemas
3) Break
4) Dual Processes
1) Automatic Processes
2) Controlled Processes
3) Gut Feelings versus Analyses
5) Next Class
Questions?
Memory Test
Memory Test
ADVENTUROUS
SELF-CONFIDENT
INDEPENDENT
PERSISTENT
Memory Test
Memory Test
RECKLESS
CONCEITED
ALOOF
STUBBORN
What is Social Cognition?
Social Psychology:
The scientific study of how
people think and feel about,
influence, and relate to one
another
Cognitive Psychology:
The scientific study of basic
mental abilities such as
perception, learning, and
memory
SOCIAL COGNITION: Social cognition studies how people think
about themselves and the social world – how they select,
interpret, remember and use social information to make
judgments and decisions
Social Cognition is
 Related to process
 Related to what is in our head

Our cognitive representations or schemas
 About people (it is social)
Social Cognition strives to examine
 how we take information from the outside world and
encode it (select)
 how this interpretation of the information is stored in
memory (interpret)
 how this information is retrieved from memory and
used (remember and use)
In general, social cognition is the use of cognitive
methodologies (and theories) to understand people and
social situations.
Memory Test
Donald – the story
Memory Test
ADVENTUROUS
RECKLESS
SELF-CONFIDENT
CONCEITED
INDEPENDENT
ALOOF
PERSISTENT
STUBBORN
Schemas

Schemas are mental structures that represent
knowledge about a concept or type of stimuli, they
often include attributes and the relationship among
those attributes
Types of Schemas




Role Schemas: expectations about people in particular roles
and social categories (e.g., the role of a social psychologist,
student, doctor, Portuguese)
Self-Schemas: expectations about the self that organize and
guide the processing of self-relevant information
Person Schemas: expectations based on personality traits.
What we associate with a certain type of person (e.g.,
introvert, warm person)
Event Schemas: expectations about sequences of events in
social situations. What we associate with certain situations
(e.g., restaurant schemas)
Why are schemas important?
 They reduce the amount of information to process
 They reduce ambiguity
 They guide our:
 Attention and encoding
 How quick we notice
 What we notice
 How we interpret what we notice
Schemas Influence Attention and
Encoding/Categorization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38XO7ac9eSs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo
Why are schemas important?
 They reduce the amount of information to process
 They reduce ambiguity
 They guide our:
 Attention and encoding
 How quick we notice
 What we notice
 How we interpret what we notice
 Our memory
 Our judgments
When do we use schemas?
Accessibility X Fit (Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977)
• Accessibility
• the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront
of people’s minds (and therefore are likely to be used when
making judgments about the social world).
• Chronic accessibility versus priming
• Fit (applicable, representative, similar)
• the degree to which the accessible construct fits the
object/person under judgment.
When do we use schemas?
Applicable
Nonapplicable
ADVENTUROUS
OBEDIENT
SELF-CONFIDENT
NEAT
INDEPENDENT
SATIRICAL
PERSISTENT
GRATEFUL
RECKLESS
DISRESPECTFUL
CONCEITED
LISTLESS
ALOOF
CLUMSY
STUBBORN
SHY
The problem with schemas…
1. Schemas can distort reality and memories
2. Schemas can persist, even when discredited
- Belief perseverance
3. Schemas can be self-fulfilling
- People often live up to our expectations because
we treat them in ways that make them act in
accordance with these expectations
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
1. We have expectations (schemas) about
other people.
2. These expectations can influence how we
act toward these people.
3. These actions can cause these people to act
in ways that are consistent with our
expectations.
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
Academic Success:
Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) - Pygmalion effect
Teenage Drinking Behavior:
Madon, Willard, Guyl, Trudeau, & Spoth (2006)
Teenage Drinking Behavior:
Asked mothers to rate the likelihood that their child would drink at 5 different
times - when the same child was in grade 6, grade 7, grade 8, grade 10, and
grade 12.
How likely do you think that your child will drink alcohol regularly as a
teenager?
Certain this will
not happen
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Certain this will
happen
9
10
If your child was at a party and one of his or her friends offered him/her an
alcoholic beverage, how likely would your child be to drink?
Certain this will
not happen
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Certain this will
happen
9
10
Teenage Drinking Behavior:
They also measured the child’s alcohol use in grade 7,
grade 8, grade 10 and grade 12 with open-ended questions.
During the past month, how many times have you had beer, wine,
wine coolers, or other liquor?
During the past month, how many times have you had three or more
drinks?
They also controlled for important predictors such as:
•
•
•
•
Parents drinking
Accessibility to alcohol
Perceived norms about teenage drinking
Attitudes toward alcohol use
Children’s Alcohol Use
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Grade 7
Grade 8
Grade 10
Grade 12
The process of accumulation of expectations over time for mothers who
consistently overestimated their child’s alcohol use.
Children’s Alcohol Use
Overestimating
Mothers
Underestimating
Mothers
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Grade 7
Grade 8
Grade 10 Grade 12
The additive effects of expectations over time worsen an initial difference in alcohol
use between mothers who overestimate and underestimate their child’s alcohol use.
Schemas influence




Our attention and encoding
Our memory
Our judgments
Our behaviour
 which can in turn influence our social
environment
Questions?
Dual Processes –
Automatic vs. Controlled Processing
An Automatic Process is:
 unintentional/spontaneous
 efficient
 fast
 implicit/nonconscious
 uncontrollable
2. How do we measure this type of process?
Automatic/Implicit Measures
Reaction Time Tasks
 Lexical Decision Task/Sequential Priming Task
 Stroop Task
 Implicit Association Test - IAT
Physiological/Social Cognitive Neuroscience Measures
 ECG (heart rate)
 Cortisol Levels
 FMRI, EEG (brain activity)
Subtle and Nonverbal Behaviours
How much do you like this letter?
___
really dislike
1
___
really dislike
1
___
really dislike
1
___
really dislike
1
___
really dislike
1
___
really dislike
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
really like
6
7
5
really like
6
7
5
really like
6
7
5
really like
6
7
5
really like
6
7
5
really like
6
7
Name Letter Task
How much they like each letter of the alphabet
F
really dislike
1
2
3
4
5
really like
6
7
5
really like
6
7
C
really dislike
1
2
3
4
Compare mean ratings of own first and last initials to overall liking
across all subjects of those first and last initials
Self-Esteem
A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of selfworth.
How is the Name Letter Task
automatic?
An Automatic Process is:
 unintentional/spontaneous
 efficient
 fast
 implicit/nonconscious
 uncontrollable
SELF-ESTEEM IAT
pleasant
or
SELF
unpleasant
or
OTHER
THEM
SELF-ESTEEM IAT
pleasant
or
SELF
unpleasant
or
OTHER
love
SELF-ESTEEM IAT
unpleasant
or
SELF
pleasant
or
OTHER
ME
SELF-ESTEEM IAT
unpleasant
or
SELF
pleasant
or
OTHER
war
How is the IAT automatic?
An Automatic Process is:
 unintentional/spontaneous
 efficient
 fast
 implicit/nonconscious
 uncontrollable
Subtle and Nonverbal Behaviours



What are subtle and nonverbal behaviors?
What is an example of this type of behaviour related to selfesteem?
How are these effects automatic?Are they intentional? Controlled?
Are participants aware that they are making these types of
responses?
Nonverbal “leakage”
 Definition: the unintentional transmission of information
through nonverbal channels of communication.
 Might occur because
(a) don’t think to control nonverbals
(b) aren’t able to control nonverbals
Dual Processes –
Automatic vs Controlled Processing
A Controlled Process is
 intentional/deliberative
 capacity consuming/inefficient
 generally slower
 explicit/conscious
 controllable
2. How do I measure this type of process?
Controlled/Explicit Measures
Self-Report Measures
 Standard Personality Measures/Attitude Measures
(e.g., surveys, questionnaires, interviews)
Explicit Behaviours
 What say, how act, who choose, etc. when able to
deliberate and control responses
Self-Esteem
A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of selfworth.
Examples of
Explicit Measures of Self-Esteem
 Self-Esteem
overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth
 Rosenberg (1965) Trait Self-Esteem Scale
 Pennebaker (1997) Writing Task
Rosenberg (1965) Trait Self-Esteem Scale
10 items
I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal
plane with others.
Strongly disagree
1
Strongly agree
2
3
4
Pennebaker (1997) Writing Task
Instruct participants to write about their deepest
thoughts and feelings about themselves.
Explicit and Deliberative Behaviours



What are explicit, controlled, deliberative behaviors?
What is an example of this type of behaviour related
to self-esteem?
How are these effects controlled/explicit?Are they
intentional? Are participants aware that they are
making these types of responses? Are they
controlled?
Self-Esteem
A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth.
Is high self-esteem good or bad?
Good
 it protects us from depression, drug abuse, some types of delinquency
Bad
 terrorists, gang leaders, extreme ethnocentrists have high self-esteem
 if we reject people with high self-esteem they can become ugly and abusive
The answer may be related to dual processing theories.
Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, HoshinoBrowne, & Correll (2003)
 Measured Explicit Self-Esteem
 Rosenberg scale
 Conscious and deliberately reasoned evaluations of self
 Measured Implicit Self-Esteem
 IAT
 Automatic evaluations of self that occur unintentionally
and outside of awareness
Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, HoshinoBrowne, & Correll (2003)
 Examined relationship of Implicit and Explicit SelfEsteem with Narcissism
 Narcissists have grandiose self-views (potentially
concealing unacknowledged self-doubt)
 “I really like to be the center of attention.”
 “I like to look at myself in the mirror.”
 “I am more capable than other people.”
Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, HoshinoBrowne, & Correll (2003)
Explicit Self-Esteem
Low
High
?
Low
Real low
Self-esteem
High
?
Real high (secure)
Self-esteem
Implicit
Self-Esteem
So which group would be high in narcissism (i.e., Who would have a
grandiose self-view (potentially concealing unacknowledged self-doubt)?
Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, HoshinoBrowne, & Correll (2003)
Explicit Self-Esteem
Low
High
Low
Real low
Self-esteem
Defensive
Self-Esteem
High
Modest/
Cultural
Real high (secure)
Self-esteem
Implicit
Self-Esteem
So which group would be high in narcissism (i.e., Who would have a
grandiose self-view (potentially concealing unacknowledged self-doubt)?
Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, HoshinoBrowne, & Correll (2003)
Explicit Self-Esteem
Low
High
Low
Implicit
Self-Esteem
High
High levels of
Narcissism Low levels of
Narcissism
These findings suggest that we may need to re-conceptualize the
way we think about and measure self-esteem and the importance
of taking these dual processes into account.
Gut Feelings vs. Analysis:
Dual Attitudes
Wilson (1989) - dating
Attitudes
Behaviors?
How happy are you in your relationship?
This predicts (in general)
whether a couple will be dating a few months later.
Gut Feelings vs. Analysis:
Dual Attitudes
Dijksterhuis (2004) – Apartment Study
 Information about 4 apartments in Amsterdam

Described each with 12 different attributes





Apt. A: sizeable, bad neighbourhood, cheap, bay window, etc ****
Apt. B: nice area, far from stores, expensive, subway, etc
Apt. C: cheap, nice neighbours, ugly, small bedrooms, etc
Apt D: unfriendly landlord, no fireplace, small kitchen, poor condition, etc *
One apartment was more desirable and one less desirable than
others.
Gut Feelings vs. Analysis:
Dual Attitudes
Dijksterhuis (2004)
 All subjects asked to evaluate each apartment
 1/3 did so immediately
 1/3 given 3 minutes to think about it consciously
 1/3 told that they would have to choose later but they were
distracted for 3 minutes to prevent them from conscious
thought (2-back task)
Gut Feelings vs. Analysis:
Dual Attitudes
Dijksterhuis & van Olden (2006) - Poster Study
 Subjects were allowed to choose 1 of 5 poster to take
home
 1/3 look briefly at poster and choose
 1/3 look at poster briefly and allowed to think about
choice for 9 minutes
 1/3 look briefly at poster and then distracted for 9
minutes
Gut Feelings vs. Analysis:
Dual Attitudes
Dijksterhuis & van Olden (2006)
- Poster Study
 Experimenter called them a few weeks later
 Guess who was happiest with their poster?
 Also asked how much money they needed to sell the
poster back
Questions?
Next Class
Class 3: Social Perception and Self-Perceptions
Reading material:
Chapter 4: Social Perception:
How We Come to Understand Other People,
pp. 88-123.
Chapter 5: Self-Knowledge and the Need to
Maintain Self-Esteem,
pp. 124-151.