AP GOV CONCEPTS
FEDERALISM
FEDERALISM
• 2008 Free Response
FEDERALISM
• What is it?
– Expressed powers
– Implied powers
– Inherent powers
– Reserved powers
– Concurrent powers
– Prohibited powers
FEDERALISM
• Buzz Words:
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Implied powers
Elastic clause
Nullification
Commerce clause
Dual federalism
Cooperative federalism
Fiscal federalism
Devolution
Grants-in-aid (categorical grant/block grant)
Mandates (unfunded mandates)
FEDERALISM
• Key cases:
– McCulloch v. Maryland
– Lochner v. New York
– US v. Lopez
– Printz v. US
– Gibbons v. Ogden
– Brown v. Board of Education
FEDERALISM
• Expressed/Enumerated powers
– Legislative powers (veto, pocket veto, signing
legislation).
– State of the Union address.
– Appointment power (to a domestic office).
– Calling Congress into session.
– Chief executive role (“faithfully execute the law”
clause).
– Commander-in-chief role
JUDICIAL REVIEW
JUDICIAL REVIEW
• 2011 Free Response
JUDICIAL REVIEW
• Judicial review
– It gives the Court the power to overturn laws
passed by Congress/legislative branch or actions
taken by the president/executive branch.
– It gives the Court the power to limit actions taken
by Congress/legislative branch or the
president/executive branch.
JUDICIAL REVIEW
• Key cases:
– Marbury v. Madison
– McCulloch v. Maryland
– Gibbons v. Ogden
LAWMAKING
LAWMAKING
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2012 Free Response
2009 Free Response
2006 Free response
2003 Free Response
• Three primary duties of Congress
– Writing laws
– Overseeing implementation of laws
– Serving the needs of constituents
LAWMAKING
• Buzz Words:
– Filibuster
• Senate only! Allows a senator to prevent/delay action on a bill
• Prevents other business from being conducted
– Rules Committee
• Makes it easier or more difficult for bill to pass
• Makes the process more efficient/orderly/manageable
– Conference Committee
• Reconciles differences in House and Senate versions of a bill
– Congressional Oversight
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Budgetary process (power of the purse)
Committee hearings
Confirmation or rejection of political appointments to the bureaucracy
Investigations
New legislation
Legislative veto (now unconstitutional)
– Casework (dealing with constituent issues)
• Diverts time, resources, and staff, thus reducing members’ ability to focus on legislation.
• Develops awareness of problems, thus focusing more time and resources on related
legislation.
LAWMAKING
• Majority Party Advantage (House):
– Holds committee chairs
– Controls Rules Committee
– Sets the agenda
– Controls debate
– Chooses Speaker of the House
– Holds majority on each committee
– Assigns bills to committees
LAWMAKING
•
Differences in House and Senate rules:
•
Why a bill might pass in one chamber but not the other
– Filibuster—even though the House may pass a bill, the Senate can kill the bill with a filibuster.
– Holds—even though the House may pass a bill, the Senate can delay or stop it with a hold.
– Unanimous consent agreements—the Senate can ease passage of a bill with unanimous consent
agreements, while the House has no such mechanism.
– Germaneness—the Senate can add unrelated content that members of the House might find
objectionable.
– Rules Committee—even though the Senate may pass a bill, the House Rules Committee can hinder
passage of that bill in the House.
LAWMAKING
• Why bicameralism?
– Compromise at Constitutional Convention
– Protect minority interests
– Slow the process of lawmaking
– Prevention of majority tyranny
LAWMAKING
• Why did Framers give House unique powers?
– Closer to the people
– More representative and responsive to the public
• 2 year terms
• Powers unique to House:
– Initiate revenue bills
– Impeachment power
– Choose President in an electoral college deadlock
LAWMAKING
• Why did the Framers give the Senate unique
powers?
– More “mature”/ “august” body
– More insulated from public opinion (originally not
directly elected)
• Longer and/or staggered terms
• Originally reflected more state than popular interests
• Powers unique to Senate:
– Treaty ratification
– Confirmation of judicial and executive appointees
– Try impeachment hearings
LAWMAKING
• Committee system influences on legislative
process
– Specialization- development of expertise;
independence from executive branch; more
attention paid to legislation;
– Reciprocity/logrolling- vote trading; speeds
process
– Party representation on committees- party pushes
own agenda and determines committee chairs
POLITICAL CULTURE/BELIEFS
POLITICAL CULTURE/BELIEFS
• Buzz Words:
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Conservative
Liberal
Libertarian
Socialist
Populist
Democrat
Republican
Political efficacy
Political socialization
Public opinion
Political ideology
Political efficacy
Split-ticket voting
Straw poll
Scientific poll
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“Rally round the flag”
Motor voter law
Political cleavage
polarization
POLITICAL PARTIES
POLITICAL PARTIES
• 2006 Free Response
POLITICAL PARTIES
• Fundamental goals
– Elect candidates to office
– Gain control of government
– influence policy by electing candidates to office
and gaining control of government
POLITICAL PARTIES
• Buzz Words:
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Republican
Democrat
Third Party
Dealignment
Realignment
Critical election
Closed primary
Open primary
Blanket primary
Proportional representation
Two party system
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
• 2012 Free Response
• 2008 Free Response
• Has increased since 1960…….
– BUT….still faces barriers
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
• Aids to representation:
– Voting Rights Act
• Eliminating voter registration requirements (e.g., literacy
tests, residency requirements) that
• prevented minorities from voting led to increased access for
minority voters.
• Creating federal oversight of elections helped eliminate
discriminatory mechanisms (e.g., voter
• intimidation, ballot fraud) that were used to prevent
minority voters from voting, which led to
• increased access for minority voters.
• Eliminating the use of English-only ballots that prevented
non-English-speaking minorities
• from voting led to increased access for minority voters.
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
• Aids to representation:
– 15th Amendment
• “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by
any State on account of race, color, or previous
condition of servitude”
– 24th Amendment
• Eliminating poll taxes that limited voting by lowerincome people led to an increase in minority voting
because minorities are often overrepresented among
poor people
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
• Aids to representation:
– Alternative forms of political participation
• Demonstrations/protests/public rallies/civil
disobedience
• Organized interest-group activity (e.g., NAACP)
• Courts/litigation
• Boycotts
• Election activities other than voting (campaigning,
donating)
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
• Barriers to representation:
– Barriers for minority candidates
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Incumbency advantage
Gerrymandered districts
Majority-minority districts
Prejudice, racism, sexism
Electoral resources
Electoral qualifications
Single-member districts/winner-take-all
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
• Barriers to representation:
– Barriers for minority voters
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I.D. requirements
English-only ballots
Felony disenfranchisement
Purging voter rolls
Voter intimidation
Literacy tests
Poll taxes
Grandfather clauses
Dilution of voting strength through redistricting
White primaries
Election procedures (notification, access)
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON
JUDICIAL BRANCH
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• 2012 Free Response
• 2005 Free Response
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• Political factors for judicial appointment:
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campaign promises
gender
geographic diversity
home-state senator (if lower courts)
ideology
interest group input
issue positions
party
potential for confirmation success
professional background, experience, education
race
religion
scandal
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• Political factors for judicial confirmation:
– advice and consent
– campaign promises
– filibuster
– gender
– geographic diversity
– holds
– home-state senator (if lower courts)
– ideology
– interest group input
– issue positions
– the media (televising Judiciary Committee
hearings)
– party
– professional background, experience, education
– race
– religion
– safe/weak nominee
– scandal
– senatorial courtesy
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• Legislative checks on court
decisions:
–amendments
–confirmation
–congressional funding
–impeachment
–jurisdiction stripping
–legislation
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• Executive checks on court
decisions:
–power of appointment
–executive enforcement
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• Ways Supreme Court is insulated from public
opinion:
– Appointed not elected
– Life terms
– Court sets it’s own agenda and controls the docket
– Salaries cannot be reduced
– There is limited access to court proceedings
POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY
• Reasons Supreme Court does not deviate too far
from public opinion:
– Appointment and confirmation processes have
political realities
– There is a reliance on other public officials to execute
decisions
– Constitutional amendments can overrule decisions
– Credibility/legitimacy of the institution itself
(individual reputation or the reputation of the Court)
– Potential for impeachment
– Congressional control of appellate jurisdiction
– Congressional control of the number of justices
INTEREST GROUPS
INTEREST GROUPS
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2012 Free Response
2010 Free Response
2006 Free Response
2004 Free Response
1999 Free Response
INTEREST GROUPS
• Fundamental goals:
– Influence public policy
– Influence Congress/government
– Change laws
INTEREST GROUPS
• Interest Group techniques in influencing elections:
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campaign contributions
candidate ratings
endorsements
501(c)4 (tax-exempt non-profit organization)
527
funneling volunteers to campaigns
GOTV (“get out the vote”) efforts
independent expenditures
issue ads
PACs
providing information on issue and candidates
INTEREST GROUPS
• Ways interest groups influence policy:
– Grassroots mobilization — interest groups
organize citizens, who act to influence
policymakers
– Lobbying — direct contact with policymakers for
the purpose of persuasion through the provision
of information, political benefits, etc.
– Litigation — the use of courts to gain policy
preferences through cases or amicus curiae
INTEREST GROUPS
• How interest groups use issue networks and
amicus curiae briefs:
– Interest groups participate in issue networks by
providing money, information, and resources in
hopes of obtaining political support from
Congress, the bureaucracy, or the White House.
– Interest groups use amicus briefs to inform the
Court in hopes of influencing the acceptance of
cases, Court reasoning, or decisions
INTEREST GROUPS
• Media/pluralism limits on interest groups:
– Media can act as a gatekeeper of information or a
watchdog of interest group behavior.
– Pluralism limits interest group influence because
of the competition among a vast number of
groups.
INTEREST GROUPS
• Interest group protections (Bill of Rights):
– Speech — allows citizens to say almost anything they
want
– Press — allows citizens access to information, each
other and policymakers; printed advocacy
– Assembly — allows citizens to come together
– Petition — allows citizens to address government
– Various due process/criminal justice provisions (e.g.,
grand jury indictment, jury of peers, search and
seizure) — protects citizens from
retribution/harassment from government
INTEREST GROUPS
• Government regulations regarding interest groups:
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Disclosure of contributions, funding or activities
Registration of lobbyists, PACs
Campaign finance laws
Limits on gifts
Limits on revolving-door appointments
Limits on honoraria
Prohibition of bribery
On 2010 Exam the rubric allowed= “Any named law or
regulation with a description of what it does to regulate
interest groups”
INTEREST GROUPS
• How interest groups support political parties:
– Monetary contributions/PAC donations
– Organization/mobilization of people
– Media campaigns
– Information
– Independent committees/527s
– Independent expenditures
– Endorsement/recruitment of candidates
INTEREST GROUPS
• How these forms of support benefit interest
groups:
– Access/influence policymakers
– Have like-minded people/policy advocates in
office
– Legislation that benefits the interest group
INTEREST GROUPS
• Some specific interest groups which have
been mentioned on the Exam:
– AARP
– AMA
– NAACP
– NAM
SUPREME COURT
METHODOLOGY
SUPREME COURT METHODOLOGY
• 2011 Free Response
SUPREME COURT METHODOLOGY
• Writ of certiorari process
– Lower/appelate courts
– Rule of 4
SUPREME COURT METHODOLOGY
• Influence on judicial decisions:
– Stare decisis
• Justices defer to prior Supreme Court decisions.
• Justices apply precedent to current cases and rule
based on past decision
– Judicial activism
• Justices are more likely to strike down laws and policies
as unconstitutional.
• Justices are influenced by the future/societal
ramifications/needs of the nation
NOMINATION PROCESS
NOMINATION PROCESS
• 2011 Free Response
NOMINATION PROCESS
• State nomination methods
– Closed primary
• Only registered party members can cast a ballot in
primary
– Open primary
• a primary election in which any voter can cast a ballot
in any party’s primary.
– Caucus
• a meeting or gathering of members of a political party
where members deliberate and choose from the list of
those seeking the presidential nomination
NOMINATION PROCESS
• Consequences of winner-take-all primaries:
– Shortens the timeframe for candidates wrapping
up the nomination.
– Affects strategic decisions (e.g., allocation of
funds, time).
– Advantage to those with more prominence or
better name recognition early in the process
NOMINATION PROCESS
• Democratic Party use of superdelegates:
– Increases power of party leaders.
• Party leaders are now assured a role in the nomination
process, regardless of which candidate they support.
• Party leaders can cast the deciding vote in close
nomination contests.
• Superdelegates are unpledged and therefore can
change their minds on candidates as the process
unfolds.
NOMINATION PROCESS
• “Move To The Center”:
– Candidates must be more partisan to win a
primary and then move to more moderate
positions in general elections
• The electorate in the primary election is different from
the electorate in the general election.
• A candidate’s opponents in the primary are fellow
partisans, whereas opponents in the general election
are from other parties.
• There are differences in financing, media coverage and
current events leading up to the general election
PUBLIC OPINION
PUBLIC OPINION
• 2011 Free Response
• Polls=“Linkage” institution
PUBLIC OPINION
• Valid scientific poll contains
– Randomized sample
– Representative sample
– Question wording that is unbiased, unambiguous
– Large sample size/low margin of error
PUBLIC OPINION
• How public opinion influences Congress:
– Strong public opinion as expressed in polling
results influences them…..
• Because of the desire to get reelected/electoral
ambition
• Because of the perceived obligation/duty to represent
their constituents
– Competitive reelections influence them …….
• Because of the desire to get reelected
• A competitive reelection says, “we are not happy”
PUBLIC OPINION
• Limits on public opinion influencing Congress:
– Legislators’ voting records
• To avoid being perceived as indecisive by
voters/supporters
– Party leadership:
• To avoid the risk of losing party support
• To gain party support
SEPARATION OF POWERS
SEPARATION OF POWERS
• 2011 Free Response
• 2004 Free Response
SEPARATION OF POWERS
• Influence of Presidential powers on Congress:
– Veto power
• Results in congressional interaction with the president/executive branch
during the legislative process (e.g., bargaining, negotiation, compromising,
consulting).
• Prevents or discourages congressional action if the president makes a
statement of clear opposition or threatens a veto.
– Power to issue executive orders
• Congress acts in response to or anticipates executive orders (e.g.,
countermands, preempts, compromises).
• Congress avoids taking action on controversial issues.
– Power as commander in chief
• Congress engages in oversight activities.
• Congress clarifies its role associated with the power to declare war (i.e., War
Powers Act).
• Congress controls military spending and thus can approve, modify or reject
funding
SEPARATION OF POWERS
• Influence of Legislative powers on President
– Power of legislative oversight
• Presidents minimize the number or extent of actions that might draw congressional
scrutiny.
– Senate advice and consent power
• Presidents weigh the implications of making controversial or ideological nominations or
appointments.
• Presidents use recess appointments, avoiding controversial confirmation battles.
• Presidents use executive agreements to avoid the need to have treaties ratified.
– Budgetary power
• Presidents consider budget items or programs that are important to members of
Congress.
• Presidents consult with members of Congress during the budget process.
• Presidents sign budgets that include provisions they oppose rather than veto the budget.
• Presidents postpone agenda items because of difficulty in getting congressional
budgetary approval.
SEPARATION OF POWERS
• Formal Presidential foreign policy powers
– Commander in Chief/power to commit troops
– Appointment of ambassadors and foreign policy
officials
– Negotiate/make treaties
– Recognition of nations
– Receive ambassadors and other public ministers
SEPARATION OF POWERS
• Formal Congressional foreign policy powers
– Confirm ambassadors
– Power of the purse in military/foreign policy
matters
– Power to declare war
– Power to create laws/resolutions on foreign policy
issues
– Ability to regulate foreign commerce
– Ratify treaties
SEPARATION OF POWERS
• Informal Presidential foreign policy powers
(creates advantage over Congress)
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Executive agreements
Access to media/bully pulpit/morale building
Agenda setting
Meet with world leaders
Crisis managers
International coalition building
President has more knowledge to
knowledge/expertise/information than Congress
– Recognized as a global leader
BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRACY
• 2010 Free Response
• 2006 Free Response
• 1999 Free Response
BUREAUCRACY
• Max Weber-modern conception of
bureaucracy
• Pendleton Act- merit-based; civil service
exams
• Hatch Act- prohibited government employees
from active participation in partisan politics
BUREAUCRACY
• Key characteristics of merit system:
– Hiring or promotion based on
merit/experience/qualifications
– Hiring based on testing
BUREAUCRACY
• Bureaucratic independence:
– Structure of the bureaucracy
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Large
Specialized units/expertise
Tenure protections/hard to fire
Based on merit
Independent agencies/independent regulatory commissions
– Complexity of public policy problems
• Specialized units/expertise
• Delegated authority — because Congress and the president cannot
handle everything, they delegate authority to the bureaucracy
• Discretionary authority — because legislation lacks details, the
bureaucracy can fill in the gaps
BUREAUCRACY
• Constitutional checks on the bureaucracy:
– Congress
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Appropriations — can reward or punish agency
Legislation — can pass legislation affecting the bureaucracy
Rejection of presidential appointments to the bureaucracy
Impeachment of executive officials
– Courts
• Court rulings that limit bureaucratic practices
• Judicial review — can declare bureaucratic actions
unconstitutional
• Injunctions against federal agencies
BUREAUCRACY
• Constitutional checks on the bureaucracy:
– Interest groups
• Use of the First Amendment
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Lobbying
Protests
Media usage
Speech
• Litigation
BUREAUCRACY
• Why does Congress give policy-making
discretion to Federal agencies?
– Congress lacks expertise/agencies have it
– Congress doesn’t want to be blamed for bad
policy
– Time-consuming
– More efficient
– Easier to come to agreement than in Congress
BUREAUCRACY
• Some important agencies:
– EPA-clean air and water
– FCC- regulation of TV, radio, satellite, telephone
– Federal Reserve Board-monetary policy
BUREAUCRACY
• How does Congress make sure agencies follow
legislative intent?
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Oversight
Appropriations/budget
Hearings
Investigations
Changes in law
Legislative veto
Casework
Creation/dissolving of agencies
BUREAUCRACY
• Reasons for failure of legislative oversight of
the Federal Bureaucracy:
– No electoral payoff/political ramifications
– Oversight is labor intensive
– Lack of technical expertise
– Iron triangles/cozy relationship with agencies
GUN RIGHTS
GUN RIGHTS
• 2nd Amendment
• District of Columbia v. Heller
– Private gun ownership outside of a state militia is
protected by the 2nd amendment
• McDonald v. Chicago
– 14th amendment makes gun ownership rights
applicable to the states
VOTING
VOTING
• 2010 Free Response
• 2009 Free Response
• 2007 Free Response
CHANGES IN VOTING DEMOGRAPHICS
• Percentage of House seats for Democrats has
trended down.
• Percentage of presidential electoral votes for
Democrats has trended down.
• South has become solidly Republican
CHANGES IN VOTING DEMOGRAPHICS
• 1948-2000: South elected more Democratic Congressional
candidates. Why?
– Incumbency advantage — Even though Southern voters were
voting for Republican presidential candidates, they continued to
vote for incumbent Democratic congressional candidates
because of the incumbency advantage.
– Gerrymandering — District lines created safe seats/majority–
minority districts, which protected Democratic seats even
though there were more Republican voters in statewide
presidential elections.
– State versus national parties — Because national and state
parties were largely independent of each other, to get votes
Democratic congressional candidates responded to local
interests, whereas Democratic presidential candidates
responded to a national constituency.
CHANGES IN VOTING DEMOGRAPHICS
• Changing party composition:
– Catholics — They have become less reliable Democratic voters.
– Labor union members — They have become less reliable
Democratic voters; have decreased in number and thus there
are fewer Democratic supporters; have become a smaller
percentage of the Democratic voting bloc.
– Women — They have become more reliable Democratic voters;
have increased in number and thus there are more Democratic
supporters; have become a larger percentage of the Democratic
voting bloc.
– Social conservatives — They were previously nonexistent and
have now crystallized to become more reliable Republican
voters; previously found in the Democratic party and have
moved to the Republican party. Christian Protestants make up a
strong core of this group.
VOTING
• Impact of age on voting:
– Older people are more likely to vote.
– Turnout is lowest for young people.
– The likelihood of voting declines in the oldest
populations.
VOTING
• Impact of education on voting:
– People with more education are more likely to
vote.
– People with less education are less likely to vote.
VOTING
• Factors which decrease voter turnout:
– Citizenship requirement
– Age
– Disfranchisement of certain groups (felons, the mentally
incompetent)
– Residency requirements
– Registration requirements
– Limited opportunities to vote (midweek, limited hours, single
day)
– Need to show identification
– Generally have to vote in person
– Closed primaries
– Process of obtaining absentee ballots.
VOTING
• Winner-take-all voting system:
LIMITS ON THE POWER OF
GOVERNMENT
LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT
• 2010 Free Response
• 2008 Free Response
• Clearly, Federalism and separation of powers
serve as basic checks on the power of
government. Be able to discuss these with
examples.
LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT
• Limits on the President
– Federalism — divides power between national
and state governments, which limits the authority
of the national executive.
– Checks and balances
• Limits on President’s ability to influence domestic
policy (2008)
LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT
• Limits on the Federal Government
– Establishment Clause — prevents the national
government from establishing a national religion
or taking any action that would show preferential
treatment for one religion over another.
– Guarantee of a public trial — requiring trials to be
open to the public limits the government’s ability
to violate the rights of citizens.
LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT
• Limits on state government
– Citizenship Clause (14th Amendment)— provides a
national definition of citizenship that states
cannot violate; requires states to provide
citizenship guarantees to all who meet the
definition of citizen.
– Selective incorporation — prohibits states from
denying Bill of Rights provisions regarding
freedom of expression, rights of the accused or
privacy.
LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT
• Constitutional provisions
MEDIA
MEDIA
• 2009 Free Response
• 1999 Free Response
MEDIA
• Agenda setting function
– A policy agenda is a set of issues, problems, or
subjects that gets the attention of/is viewed as
important by people involved in policymaking
(e.g., government officials, government decisionmakers).
– How?
• Raise awareness, provide information, draw attention,
demonstrate the importance or consequences of the
problem, or get the public’s attention.
• Get the attention of government/policymakers
MEDIA
• Presidential advantage in agenda setting
– the president is one person, while Congress is composed
of many members.
– The president speaks with a single voice, while Congress
has many voices.
– The president represents the nation; members of Congress
represent states/districts.
– The president is the national leader/leader of the country.
– The president is more powerful than any single member of
Congress.
– The president has constitutional powers that Congress
does not have.
MEDIA
• Viewing patterns of younger/older Americans
– Young people view less TV news than older
people./Older people view more TV news than
younger people.
– People in all age categories viewed less TV news in
2002 than they did in 1974
MEDIA
• Implications of changing viewing patterns
– Presidents must rely on alternative media to gain
the attention of the public.
– Presidents purposely target older viewers through
the use of nightly news programs.
– The nightly news is not as effective in promoting
the president’s agenda as it used to be.
MEDIA
• Rise of candidate-centered campaigns
– How has media contributed?
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Background/story of candidate
Image-centered/personality coverage
Talk show appearances/TV debates
Horse-race journalism/poll reporting
Emphasis on soundbites
De-emphasis of parties
“Feeding frenzy”: investigative reporting/scandals
Convention coverage
Focus on gaffes
MEDIA
• Rise of candidate-centered campaigns
– How have candidates contributed?
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“mudslinging”/negative commercials (attack ads)
Attention getting/free news coverage
Leaking information
Image building- consultants, campaign strategists, TV
appearances
• Use of the internet
• Sound bites
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
• 2009 Free Response
• 2003 Free Response
• Structures which “link” citizens to their
government
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
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Elections/voting
Media
Interest groups
Political parties
Polls
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
• Forms of political participation other than voting
– Litigation
• Numerical majority is unnecessary, appeal to principle as opposed to opinion
– Protest
• Low cost; can bring public sympathy;
– Contacting
• Direct access to leaders
– Campaign work/voter registration
• Contact with potential officials; training ground
– Campaign contributions
• Can supply access; multiplies force of individual preference
– Running for office
• Direct influence on policy; help set the agenda
– Political discussion
• Bring attention to important issues
– Membership in an overtly political institution
• Magnifying effect
MAJORITY RULE
MAJORITY RULE
• 2009 Free Response
• James Madison-Federalist 10
– Problem of factions
• Majority factions
• Minority factions
– Both could potentially dominate
MAJORITY RULE
• How Congress is closely tied to citizens
– Members of the House are more directly elected
than the president and were originally more
directly elected than members of the Senate.
– The shorter term length (or frequent elections)
ties them to the people.
– Members must live in the state they represent.
– House members represent relatively small
districts.
MAJORITY RULE
• Limits on majority rule
MAJORITY RULE
• 20th century promotion of democracy:
– Primary elections—voters gained more control
over the nomination process/control taken away
from political parties.
– Seventeenth Amendment—mandated direct
election of U.S. senators.
– Expansion of suffrage—led to a more
representative set of voters/more eligible voters.
FISCAL POLICY
FISCAL POLICY
• 2008 Free Response
• 2006 Free Response
• 1999 free Response
• Responsibility shared by executive and
legislative branches
• Federal Reserve Board has primary role of
setting monetary policy
FISCAL POLICY
• Fiscal policy involves
– Taxing and/or spending
– The budget
FISCAL POLICY
• Executive influence
– The president proposes/prepares the federal
budget.
– The president signs/vetoes legislation (related to
taxing, spending, and borrowing, not generic).
– The White House Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) recommends the budget.
FISCAL POLICY
• Legislative influence
– Congress passes the federal budget.
– Congress acts on tax and spending legislation.
– The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) advises
Congress on economic policies.
FISCAL POLICY
• Monetary policy
– Regulating the money supply.
– Controlling inflation/deflation.
– Adjusting interest rates to regulate the economy.
– Adjusting bank reserve requirements.
– The cost of money.
FISCAL POLICY
• Why is the Federal Reserve Board independent?
– It removes politics from monetary policy decision
making.
– Congress/the president can abdicate responsibility for
difficult decisions by delegating decision-making
power.
– The Federal Reserve Board relies on expertise when
making decisions.
– The Federal Reserve Board makes economic policies
efficiently.
FISCAL POLICY
• Entitlement programs:
– Government sponsored programs providing
mandated/guaranteed/required benefits to those
who meet eligibility/requirement qualifications
• Ex: Social Security
– Source of revenue
» Work/job taxes
• Payroll tax
FISCAL POLICY
• Threats to current entitlement programs:
– Output exceeds input
• “baby-boomers”
• Longer life expectancy
• Declining birth rates
FISCAL POLICY
• Budgetary barriers which hinder creation of
new policy:
– Entitlement programs
– Interest payments
– Limited discretionary spending
– Mandatory spending
FISCAL POLICY
• Non-budgetary barriers which hinder creation
of new policy:
– “not my program” orientation toward budget cuts
– Interest group competition creates “status quo”
– Party politics/divisiveness/partisanship
GERRYMANDERING
GERRYMANDERING
• 2008 Free Response
GERRYMANDERING
• Reapportionment
– The reallocation of the number of representatives
each state has in the House of Representatives.
• Importance to states
– Reapportionment increases or decreases the number of seats
a state has in the House/Congress (not the Senate).
– More representatives mean that a state has more influence.
– Reapportionment increases or decreases a state’s number of
electoral votes.
GERRYMANDERING
• Redistricting
– The drawing/redrawing of House/congressional
(not Senate) district lines.
GERRYMANDERING
• Why do politicians gerrymander?
– To enhance political party strength/to minimize
the strength of the opposition party.
– To protect incumbents/to discourage challengers.
– To increase minority representation/to decrease
minority representation.
– To punish foes/to reward friends.
GERRYMANDERING
• Supreme Court limits on gerrymandering:
– Districts must be equally populated.
– Lines must be contiguous or connected.
– Redistricting cannot dilute minority voting
strength.
– District lines cannot be drawn solely based upon
race.
– Districts must be compact.
– Communities of interest must be protected.
CAMPAIGN FINANCE
CAMPAIGN FINANCE
• 2005 Free Response
CAMPAIGN FINANCE
• Proposals
– Eliminating soft money
• Arguments against:
– Violates First Amendment
– Contrary to ruling in Buckley v. Valeo
– Party money is one step removed between contributor and decisionmaker
– Weakens political parties
– Might lessen grassroots political participation
• Arguments for:
–
–
–
–
–
Soft money used to circumvent limits on hard money
Levels the playing field
Lessens concerns about undue influence
Provides transparency
Decreases overall costs of campaigns
CAMPAIGN FINANCE
• Proposals
– Limiting independent expenditures
• Arguments against
– Violates First Amendment
– Contrary to ruling in Buckley v. Valeo
– Might lessen grassroots political participation
• Arguments for
–
–
–
–
–
Can be used to circumvent limits on hard money
Levels the playing field
Possibly reduces negative issue ads
Candidates want to control their own campaigns
Lessens concerns about undue influence
CAMPAIGN FINANCE
• Proposals
– Raising limits on individual contributions
• Arguments against
– Allows the rich to have more influence
– There is too much money in the process already
– Drives up the costs of campaigns
• Arguments for
–
–
–
–
–
Limits are not indexed to inflation
Candidates can spend less time fundraising
Decrease influence of PACS
Decreases restrictions on 1st Amendment rights
Decreases reliance on less regulated forms of campaign funds
EXPANSION OF FEDERAL
POWER
EXPANSION OF FEDERAL POWER
• 2005 Free Response
EXPANSION OF FEDERAL POWER
• Constitutional provisions used to expand
federal power
– Power to tax and spend
– Elastic (“necessary and proper”) clause
– Commerce clause
EXPANSION OF FEDERAL POWER
• Legislation
– Americans With Disabilities Act
– Civil Rights Act
– Clean Air Act
SELECTIVE INCORPORATION
SELECTIVE INCORPORATION
• 2005 Free Response
• Piecemeal process by which some liberties
listed in the Bill of Rights have been applied to
the states through the 14th Amendment/Due
Process clause
SELECTIVE INCORPORATION
• Incorporated rights
– Rights of criminal defendants
– First amendment
– Right to privacy
SELECTIVE INCORPORATION
• Specific amendments
– 1st Amendment
– 2nd Amendment
– 4th Amendment
– 5th amendment (portions)
– 6th amendment (portions)
– 7th Amendment (portions)