What is geography ?
If "When?" is the realm of history,
then "Where?" is the primary
focus of geographic inquiry.
HERE ARE SOME
DEFINITIONS
FOUND IN VARIOUS
TEXTS
Geography --- deBlij
“Geography is concerned with the analysis
of the physical and human characteristics
of the Earth’s surface from a spatial
perspective”.
deBlij Human Geography, A-21.
Human Geography -- Fellmann
“The spatial analysis of human
populations, their cultures, their
activities and behaviors, and their
relationship with and impact on the
physical landscapes they occupy”.
Fellmann, Human Geography,
p 553.
Geography -- Rubenstein
“The scientific study of the location of
people and activities across Earth, and
the reasons for their distribution”.
Rubenstein Human Geography, p 2.
____________________________________
Human geography -- Rubenstein
“The study of where and why human
activities are located where they are”.
Rubenstein, p. 4
IN OTHER WORDS……
Why what is
where.
Why what is where.
Can be anything
tall buildings
fast food restaurants
slums
volcanoes
Why what is where.
Spatial component
Why what is where.
tallest buildings
fast food restaurants
slums
volcanoes
Why
what
is
where.
tallest buildings
center of city
fast food restaurants
grouped together
slums
Outskirts of cities
volcanoes
edge of plates
AP Human Geography Topics







Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives
Population & Migration
Cultural Patterns and Processes
Political Organization of Space
Agricultural and Rural Land Use
Industrialization and Economic Development
Cities and Urban Land Use
Human Geography: Five Themes





Location – the space that is occupied in the
universe (absolute/relative).
Place – physical and human characteristics: space
after humans.
Human/Environment Interactions – how
humans depend, modify, and adapt to their
environments.
Movement – how humans interact on earth, the
diffusion of religion or trade patterns through
connections of peoples.
Regions – an area with one or more shared
characteristics.




Vocabulary Tests
Map Tests
Multiple Choice Tests
Free Response Questions (FRQs)
Notes, notes, everywhere and
not a thought to think
Homework: Read Key Issue 1
(pp. 6-14) and complete SQ3R
Debra Troxell,
NBCT
Three sources of map distortion



Map scale – most maps are smaller than the
reality they represent. Map scales tell us how
much smaller.
Map projection – this occurs because you must
transform the curved surface of the earth on a
flat plane.
Map type – you can display the same
information on different types of maps.
Map scale – tells us relationship between distance on
map and distance on earth’s surface

Ratio scale = ratio of map distance to earth distance.
 1:10,000 means that one inch on the map equals
10,000 inches earth’s surface; one centimeter
represents 10,000 centimeters; or one foot equals
10,000 feet.
 Recall a small fraction has a large denominator so
that 1:100,000 is a smaller scale than 1:25,000.
 A large-scale map depicts a small area with great
detail.
 A small-scale map depicts a larger area with little
detail. Distortion is especially severe here.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Which is
the
largescale
map?
Which map scale shows the most detail?
a. 1:250,000
b. 1:24,000
c. 1:100,000
d. 1:62,500
1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
A map with a large scale usually shows
a large amount of land space
a small amount of land space
physical features only of a land space
the local-global continuum
political boundaries between countries only
the other Scale


Refers to at what scale a process occurs –
For example, while the storm didn’t make
the national news, at the local scale it was
a major story.
Evolution of Mapmaking


Babylonians – 2300 BC earliest surviving
maps written on clay tablets.
Aristotle – 384-322 BC demonstrated earth
was spherical through maps.
Evolution of Mapmaking



Eratosthenes – 276-194 BC first person to use
the word geography. Also the first person to
correctly divide earth into 5 climatic regions.
Ptolemy – 100-170 AD Guide to Geography
Age of Exploration – by the 17th century,
most continents and oceans were accurately
displayed.
1.
Who demonstrated the Earth was round
using maps?
a. Ptolemy
c. Eratosthenes
2.
b. Aristotle
d. Sauer
Who coined the word geography?
a. Ptolemy
c. Eratosthenes
b. Aristotle
d. Sauer
Debra Troxell, NBCT
GeoSpatial Revolution

Episode 1
http://geospatialrevolution.psu.edu/episod
e1
Contemporary Mapping



GIS (geographic information systems)
GPS (global positioning system)
Remote Sensing Satellites
GIS Layers
Use of GIS in Emergencies
Remote Sensing


The acquisition of data about Earth’s surface remotely
such as from an airplane or satellite orbiting the planet.
Primarily environmental mapping – vegetation, surface
cover, winter ice cover, deforestation
Satellite images of the north-east coast of Japan before
(left) and after the earthquake and tsunami. Water is
black or dark blue and the thin green line in the 'after'
image indicates the shoreline. Photograph: Nasa

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html?_r=0

http://eijournal.com/2011/disaster-response-in-japan-2
a. Remote Sensing
c. GIS
1.
2.
b. GPS
d. DTM
Layers of geographical information that
can be selected or deselected when
viewing a map
Can immediately scan the Earth’s surface
to determine changes in geography
Subway:
Know Where You’re
Going
Homework:
The Subway
Geographic Activity 1
Homework: Read Key Issue 3
(pp. 30-39) and complete SQ3R
Class Work:
The Subway
Geographic Activity 2
Distribution
•Density
•Concentration
•Pattern
Distribution definition

The arrangement of something across
earth’s surface
Rank
1
Country
China
Population
1,313,661,696
2
India
1,129,866,154
3
United States
300,535,217
4
Indonesia
241,973,879
5
Brazil
186,112,794
6
Pakistan
162,419,946
7
Bangladesh
144,319,628
8
Russia
143,420,309
Rank
Country
Area – km2
1
Russia
17,098,242
3
China
9,640,821
4
United States
9,629,091
5
Brazil
8,514,877
7
India
3,287,263
16
Indonesia
1,904,569
36
Pakistan
880,254
94
Bangladesh
143,998
Population Density
What factors affect population
distribution?




Economic
Social
Political
Environmental
Population
Density Asia
Density of Population, 2005
Brazil
Australia, 1997
1 dot = 1000 people
India
Population Density
Spatial Distribution

Definition: The regular arrangement of a
phenomenon across Earth’s surface.



Density: The frequency with which something
exists within a given unit of area.
Concentration: The spread of something over
a given study area
Pattern: The geometric or regular
arrangement of something in a study area
Describing Distributions
Describing Distributions
Land Ordinance of 1785
location, direction, distance
site and situation
Toponym

Place Name!
Some Vocab:



Absolute Direction
Absolute Distance
Absolute Location



Relative Direction
Relative Distance
Relative Location
Absolute location
mathematical location

Clemmons is:



36⁰ 01’ 17.30” N (longitude)
80 ⁰ 22’ 55.15” W (latitude)
West Forsyth High


1735 Lewisville-Clemmons Rd.
Clemmons, NC
Site
physical attributes


(includes absolute location, but includes the
physical setting; especially in urban geography)
What are the relevant site features of
Clemmons?





Landforms
Climate
Soil quality
Availability of water
Vegetation
Relative location
regional position relative to other places






(general spatial interconnection and
interdependence)
Clemmons is in the northwest piedmont section
of Forsyth County
Davidson County is to the south
Davie County (Advance) is to the west
Winston-Salem is 10 miles to the east
Exit off I-40 & Hwy 421
Situation
location attributes



(external relations, a type of relation location that refers
to items of significance, especially in urban geography)
Suburb of Winston-Salem, a bedroom
community for persons working in the
medical, bio technical/medical and
aeronautical businesses in the Triad
I-40 and US 421, major transportation
Absolute direction
cardinal points N-S-E-W

Clemmons is southwest of Winston-Salem.
Relative direction
culturally based, not necessarily an accurate
cardinal point


Clemmons is in the “South”.
Clemmons is …
Absolute distance
mathematical space between 2 points

Clemmons is 10 miles (16km) from
Winston-Salem.
Relative distance
meaningful space measurement


Clemmons is about 15 minutes from
Winston-Salem.
Clemmons is one hour from Mt. Airy.
Use the terms…
1. Describe the absolute location, absolute
direction and absolute distance of a place
of your choice.
2. Describe the relative location, relative
direction and relative distance of the same
place.
3. Describe the site.
4. Describe the situation.
Which of the following is not a measure of
relative distance?
a. 2,339 cm
b. 35 seconds
c. $2.50 cab ride
d. 216 footsteps
e. 15 minutes
1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Relative location is an important geographic
concept mainly because it
locates places according to longitude and
latitude
defines a place in terms of how central or
isolated it is to other places
defines patterns of natural environment
helps cartographers to develop more accurate
maps
illustrates how local, regional and global factors
interact within the local-global continuum
Homework:
The Subway
Geographic Activity 3
Homework: Read Key Issue 2
(pp. 14-30) and complete SQ3R
Diffusion
The process by which an idea
or innovation is transmitted
from one individual or group
to another across space Fellman

People move to a new
area and take their
culture with them –
examples include- crops,
culture, farming
techniques, building
styles

Information about an
innovation may spread
through a society –
examples include Hybrid corn, Cd’s, a
religious creed. Possibly
through mass media
advertisement—
Known as
Known as
Relocation Diffusion
Expansion Diffusion
Relocation Diffusion
Type of Expansion Diffusion



Contagious Diffusion
Hierarchical Diffusion
Stimulus Diffusion
Contagious Diffusion



Diffusion that spreads like a disease – but
not necessarily applying only to diseases!
Affects nearly uniformly all individuals and
areas outward from the source region
Examples – influenza, ideas on the world
wide web; agriculture (like hybrid seeds),
Buddhism (but not all religions), breaking
news, Domino Theory
Hierarchical Diffusion


The spread of an idea from persons or
nodes of authority or power to other
persons or places
Examples- Birkenstocks, Christianity,
styles of clothing, music
Stimulus Diffusion


A fundamental idea, though not the trait
itself, stimulates imitative behavior
Examples – creation of a unique Cherokee
written language, Beta vs. VHS, Macs,
Siberians domesticated reindeers (after
seeing domesticated cattle)
Cultural Hearths
•An
area where cultural traits develop and
from which the cultural traits diffuse.
•Examples – Islam, agriculture,
Diffusion?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRkmt
bWURwo

Types of Diffusion are not speed specific – no
type of diffusion is particularly fast or slow
Vocabulary



Time-Space Convergence
(or Compression)
Time-Distance Decay (or
Distance Decay)
Friction of Distance
Time-Distance Decay
•The
farther the place is from the hearth,
the less likely an innovation is to be
adopted.
•The acceptance of an innovation becomes
less likely the longer it takes to reach its
potential adopters.
•Cultural barriers work against diffusion.
S-Curve
Diffusion of innovations
•3% - innovators, 13% early adopters, 68%
majority, 16% laggards
•
•
Which of the following type of diffusion
spreads the quickest?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Contagious Diffusion
Hierarchical Diffusion
Stimulus Diffusion
Relocation Diffusion
None of the answers

Rap music first appeared in New York in the 1970’s.
Later, it spread to large cities with vibrant AfricanAmerican populations – such as Los Angeles,
Oakland, Chicago, and Detroit – without being
absorbed by the smaller cities and rural areas in
between. This type of spatial diffusion is called
a. relocation potential
b. hierarchical diffusion
c. contagious diffusion
d. cultural diffusion
e. cascade diffusion

Which of the following is not a good example of
a barrier to spatial diffusion?
a. A mountain range
b. A different language
c. A different dietary preference
d. A highway system
e. A strict religious system
The Spanish-language concentration of Little
Havana in Miami is an example of what type of
diffusion?
a. relocation diffusion
b. expansion diffusion
c. stimulus diffusion
d. hierarchical diffusion
Class Work:
The Subway
Geographic Activity 4
“City of
2
Million”
article
FRQ Practice – NO Notes
Define and Give an example of
•
–
–
–
–
Relocation Diffusion
Hierarchical Diffusion
Stimulus Diffusion
Contagious Diffusion (diseases not allowed)
Map Grid




Latitude /Longitude
Tropics
Equator
Prime Meridian /International Date Line
Gain a Day
Skip a Day
Gain a Day
Skip a Day
If it is 10pm on Tuesday in
Moscow, what day and
time is it in Sydney?
Example


If I am about to take off on my Wed.
10pm flight home from Sydney and I call
my friend in LA, what day and time would
it be?
If the flight is 15 hours, what time will my
flight land in LA?

Immediately to the left of the International Date Line, the date is always one day ahead
of the date immediately to the right of the International Date Line. On the time and date
codes shown below, note that Tonga and Samoa have the exact same time, but are
actually one day apart, as Samoa is in the Western Hemisphere (to the east of the dateline)
and Tonga is in the Eastern Hemisphere.
In summary, travel west across the International Date Line and you will gain a day, travel
east across it and you will lose a day.
All Maps should Have




Cartographer
Title
Scale
Key
How to Lie with maps




A map is a generalization or representation of
the real world.
Cartography – the science of mapmaking.
All maps lie flat and all maps lie. They
contain distortions. You cannot represent the
three-dimensional earth on a flat surface
without distorting reality.
Any useful map is selective in what is put in
and left out. Example: road or subway map.
Is this a correct map of London?
Is this a correct map of London?
Which map
would be useful
to tour
London?
Three sources of map distortion



Map scale – most maps are smaller than
the reality they represent. Map scales tell
us how much smaller.
Map projection – this occurs because you
must transform the curved surface of the
earth on a flat plane.
Map type – you can display the same
information on different types of maps.
Reference Maps

General map which shows
physical features,
transportation routes
Thematic Map – you can display the
same information on different maps

Types of maps:





Dot – each dot represents some frequency
Isoline – connects points of equal value
Choropleth – puts features into classes and then maps
classes for each region
Cartogram – adjusts the size of the country
corresponds to the magnitude of the mapped feature
Proportional symbol – size of the symbol corresponds
to the magnitude of the mapped feature
Dot – each dot represents some
frequency
Chart
Map
Isoline – connects points of equal
value
Choropleth – puts features into
classes and then maps classes for
each region
Proportional symbol – size of the
symbol corresponds to the
magnitude of the mapped feature
Cartogram – adjusts the size of the
country corresponds to the
magnitude of the mapped feature
http://www.worldmapper.org/
Other Thematic Maps- spatial
distribution of one or more specific
themes
What kind of map is this?
What kind of map is this?
What kind of map is this?
What kind of map is this?
Other types of visual images:

Mental map = map of an area in your mind
A
B
D
C
Proportional Symbol?
E
A
B
D
C
Dot Map?
E
A
B
D
C
Isoline?
E
A
B
D
C
Cartogram?
E
A
B
D
C
Choropleth?
E
A
B
D
C
Good for showing
points of equal value?
E
How can such different looking maps
show the same variable?

Cartographic reasons



Different slicing values
Different levels of spatial aggregation
Geographical reasons


Uneven distribution of minorities at the state
scale as well as at the national scale
Concentration of minorities in cities, particularly
in northern states
Percent of Population White (not Hispanic)
Percent of Population White (not Hispanic)
Histogram
How often does a value set appear in data
Frequency

X
X
40
45
X
X
X
X
50
55
60
X
65
70
75
X
80
85
90
95
100
Different ways of “slicing” data

The Data {42, 50, 55, 57, 61, 77, 79, 97}


Equal interval
 Three classes based on range 40 to 100
 {42, 50, 55, 57} {61, 77, 79} {97}


Quartile
 Quartiles (lowest 1/4 of observations, next 1/4, …)
 {42, 50} {55, 57} {61, 77} {79, 97}
Different ways of “slicing” data


Natural breaks
 {428505552574616772791897}
 {42} {50, 55, 57, 61} {77, 79} {97}
Standard deviations
 Mean = 64.75, Std. Dev. = 15.977
 {42} {50, 55, 57, 61} {77, 79} {97}
mean
-2 32.79517
-1 48.77259
64.75
1 80.72741
2 96.70483
Natural Breaks
Equal Interval
Quintiles (quantiles based on division into 5 classes)
Which map would
be preferred by
each of the
following users?
•
The ACLU
•
The KKK
•
A geographer
studying the
relationship between
ethnicity and poverty
•
A spokesman for the
Georgia branch of a
charitable assistance
association targeting
minorities

Site: local conditions



Situation



Climate, soil, landforms, minerals
Age, education, savings, buildings
Natural transportation corridors
Roads, railroads, airport, internet
New Orleans: great situation, terrible site
Map projection is the way we fit
earth’s three-dimensional surface
onto flat paper or a screen
Debra Troxell, NBCT

On a map, when lines of latitude and
longitude cross what is the resulting
angle?
Pencils Down – The following
information is for background
knowledge only.
Map Projections

Think of an transparent globe
w/ an imagined light source inside

What type of shadow would
be cast?
Shadow cast would depend on light
location…



Gnomonic – light source at
center
Stereographic – light at
point opposite of tangent of
globe meeting map
Orthographic – light source
at infinity
Onto What
do you
project

An azimuth is the angle formed
at the beginning point of a
straight line, in relation to the
meridian
Position of the surface
The Math…

Derivation of the Projection:




cosφ=dR⇒d=Rcosφ
cosλ=p2d⇒p2=dcosλ=Rcosφcosλ
sinλ=p1d⇒p1=dsinλ=Rcosφsinλ
Derivation of the Inverse:



d=∥p∥
cosλ=p2∥p∥⇒λ=cos-1(p2∥p∥)
cosφ=dR⇒φ=cos-1(∥p∥R)
Just Kidding

The Most Common:




Conformal (i.e., angles are preserved)
Equal Area (i.e., areas are in constant proportion)
Equidistant (i.e., distances are in constant
proportion)
An Important Mathematical Result:

A single projection can not be both conformal and
equal area
Polar Azimuthal Orthographic
Sinusodial Projection
Equatorial Cylindrical Equal Area
Equatorial Cylindrical Conformal
Conical Equal Area
Three sources of map distortion



Map scale – most maps are smaller than
the reality they represent. Map scales tell
us how much smaller.
Map projection – this occurs because you
must transform the curved surface of the
earth on a flat plane.
Map type – you can display the same
information on different types of maps.
Medieval
“T&O” map
What common
words in the
English
language reflect
this tradition of
mapping?
•
Orientation
•
Oriented
Now…You need to know the
following projections!
Mercator Projection

Distorts size
not shape
Mercator Projection





Stretches the poles from one length to the size of
the equator. The north-south scale is constant, but
east-west scale increases to twice the north-south
scale at 60 degrees N and infinitely at the poles.
Shapes are correct for all areas, and map has
correct directional relationships.
Look at the size of Greenland and Antarctica.
Map exaggerates the distance between Chicago and
Stockholm, both in northern latitudes.
Created in 1569
Equal Area Projection

Distorts shapes, not area
Equal Area Projection


Represents areas correctly, but distorts
shapes.
If South America is 8 times larger than
Greenland on the globe, it will be 8 times
bigger on the map.
Robinson Projection

Does not preserve size, area or shape
Robinson Projection




Frequently used.
Distorts both size and shape, but not too
much.
The major benefit of the Robinson
projection is that oceans are
uninterrupted. This projection is useful in
depicting patterns of global interaction.
Considered a compromise projection
Goode’s Projection


Goode’s projection interrupts the
oceans and tucks Australia and New
Zealand farther west than in reality.
Therefore, land masses appear
relatively large compared to the oceans.
Minimized distortion in the shape of the
various land masses and the size of one
land mass compared to other land
masses.

Unprojected vs.
Lambert
Peter’s Projection


The Peters Projection World Map is one of the most
stimulating, and controversial, images of the world. When this
map was first introduced by historian and cartographer Dr.
Arno Peters at a Press Conference in Germany in 1974 it
generated a firestorm of debate. The first English-version of
the map was published in 1983, and it continues to have
passionate fans as well as staunch detractors.
The earth is round. The challenge of any world map is to
represent a round earth on a flat surface. There are literally
thousands of map projections. Each has certain strengths and
corresponding weaknesses. Choosing among them is an
exercise in values clarification: you have to decide what's
important to you. That is generally determined by the way you
intend to use the map. The Peters Projection is an area
accurate map.
http://www.petersmap.com/page2.html
West Wing video clip
Compare projections image
Mercator projection
Why did my
plane from
Paris go so
far out of the
way to get to
Chicago?
Mollweide Projection
Maybe it
didn’t go too
far out of the
way…
Azimuthal projection
(north pole)
That explains it!
Remember that every projection is a distortion.
How is this projection distorted?
A
C
B
D
On which map is the size of Greenland
distorted the most?
A
C
B
D
Which map is best for navigation?
A
C
B
D
Which map best corrects most of the
distortions associated with map projection?
A
C
B
D
Mercator Projection
What is bad about this projection?
a. Shape
b. Size
c. Distance
d. direction
1.What is bad about this projection?
a. Shape
b. Size
c. Distance
d. direction
2.What is best about this projection?
a. Shape
b. Size
c. Distance
d. direction
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.
a.
d.
Map projections attempt to correct for errors in
transferability
relative size, distance, scale & proportion
relative size, distance, shape, & direction
distance, proximity, and topology
distance, shape, and lines of latitude and
longitude
The Mercator projection preserves
size
b. area
c. shape
scale
e. distance
Goode’s Projection
What is bad about this projection?
a. Shape
b. Size
c. Distance d. direction
REGION defined:
A region constitutes an area that shares
similar characteristics – de Blij
Debra Troxell, NBCT
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Regions are an artificial construct that
geographers use to divide the world into
sections to be compared or studied.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/region
Formal or Uniform Region
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Can be defined by physical criteria,
Governmental, or by cultural traits
Functional or Nodal Region
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The product of interaction, of movement;
not necessarily homogenous, rather the
people of the region function together –
politically, socially, or economically
Will operate around a node
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The surrounding area of a city
A newspaper circulation area
Functional Region
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Core area – it characterizing features are
most clearly defined
Periphery – characteristics become less
prominent toward the region’s margins
WXII-Greensboro/WinstonSalem
WNCNRaleigh/Durham
WECTWilmington
WYFF Asheville
WCNCCharlotte
NBC Viewing Areas
Newspaper circulation
Perceptual or Vernacular
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Primarily in the minds of people –
how people think about regions
Kuby Activity
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http://bcs.wiley.com/hebcs/Books?action=resource&bcsId=5266&
itemId=0470484799&resourceId=20033&
chapterId=53467
What are some other commonly
perceived vernacular regions?
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Midwest,
PA Dutch Country,
Rust belt,
Snow Belt,
Sun Belt,
neighborhood.
1.
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2.
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Nodes, or central points where activities are
coordinated and directed, are a common characteristic
of a
a. functional culture region
b. formal culture region
c. vernacular culture region
d. multiple-trait area
Clearly defined borders are a common feature of a
a. functional culture region
b. formal culture region
c. vernacular culture region
d. multiple-trait area
1. Newspaper delivery areas are an example of which type
of region?
 a. formal
b. functional
 c. perceptual
d. graphical
e. vernacular
2. A vernacular culture region is often considered to be a
region
 a. clearly demarcated on a map
 b. having strong functional and formal features
 c. perceived to exist by its inhabitants
 d. with traditional structural traits
 e. none of the above
Little Italy Definitions- Baltimore, Md
A “Web” definition
“Little Italy” Definition- Baltimore, Md
Sergio’s definition
Sergio’s “Little Italy”
“Little Italy” Definitions--Baltimore, Md
A “Web” definition
Sergio’s definition
Practice – No Notes
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Define & Give an example of
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Functional Region
Vernacular Region
Formal Region
Learn to Write an FRQ
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1.
2.
3.
Example – Space and Place
Identify what you knew about this space beforehand and how
you knew this (for example, perhaps you looked the place up
in an atlas or heard someone describe it.)
Describe the process whereby that space became a place for
you. Identify in what ways you learned how to “read” this
place. In other words, how did you learn to see this particular
location as a three-dimensional, meaningful place that is
different from what you knew of it as a space.
Do you have to live in a place to really “know” it? Must one
experience a space for it to become a place?
FRQ Homework
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Map Projections