Mark Peffley
PS 473 Public Opinion
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Political tolerance defined: a willingness to
allow the expression of ideas and interests
one opposes
Political tolerance in democratic theories:
 What "solutions" to intolerance do these theories
prescribe?
 What predictions do these theories make about
levels and sources of political tolerance among
masses and elites that we can "test" with the
available survey data?
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Mass support for general principles of civil liberties ("I believe in
free speech/letting anyone run for office/giving a speech, no matter what their views are“)
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versus applying them to unpopular groups
Samuel Stouffer, 1954 survey
Political repression in the American states, 1954
John Sullivan et al, least-liked measure
Political tolerance in comparative perspective
Individual sources of political intolerance
General Principle:
I believe in [free speech for everyone/letting anyone run for
office/give a speech] no matter what their views are.
Elites
90%
Mass Public
80%
Elites
51%
42
11
Mass Public
29%
28
6%
Percentage Tolerant
Tolerance toward admitted communist
Speech (allowed to make speech in your community?)
Book in Library (not remove book from library?)
Teach in college (not fired from teaching in college?)
Tolerance toward suspected communist (swears not comm)
Speech
Book in library
Teach in college
Tolerance toward atheist (man is angst all churches & relig)*
Speech
Book in library
Teach in college
Admitted Communist:
SUPPOSE HE IS A CLERK IN A STORE. SHOULD HE BE FIRED OR NOT?
SUPPOSE HE IS A RADIO SINGER. SHOULD HE BE FIRED OR NOT?
SHOULD AN ADMITTED COMMUNIST BE PUT IN JAIL, OR NOT?
SHOULD HE HAVE HIS AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP TAKEN AWAY? (No)
66%
88
81
39%
71
69
64%
64%
25
37%
35%
12
27%
31
40
15%
1954 (Stouffer)
1973 (Nunn, et al)
Tolerance toward
admitted communist
27%
53%
Tolerance toward
atheists
37%
62%
Tolerance toward
socialists
58%
72%
Who is more politically tolerant
over time? Liberals?
Who is more politically tolerant over time
toward groups on the right as well as the
left?
Conservatives tolerate groups on the
right and liberals tolerate groups on the
left.
Are we really measuring political
“tolerance” if some people dislike the
group much more than others?
Political repression in the American states, 1954, Whodunit?
James Gibson,
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Gibson used Stouffer’s 1954 surveys of political
tolerance toward American Communists among
masses and elites to see whether mass or elite
tolerance levels in the states are better predictors
of levels of state repression of American
Communists.
Political Repression of American Communists by State Govt, 1954
Mass and Elite Political Tolerance Scores by State, 1954
State
Mass Tolerance
-.25
-.08
State
Repression
.52
-.35
State
Elite Tolerance
-.42
To what degree is repression of Communists in the
Amer. states due to pol. tolerance of masses vs.
elites, when we control for tolerance of the other
group?
How does the evidence square with our democratic
theories?
1. Stouffer’s original study
a. Both masses & elites intolerant toward easy targets (admitted
Comm.), but masses more so.
b. Elites much less intolerant toward “hard” targets (suspected
Comm.) than masses.
2. Gibson’s study of state repression using Stouffer survey
data and state repression against Communists
a. State repression associated with both mass & elite intolerance
b. But, when we control for mass intolerance, elite intolerance is
more predictive of state repression.
John Sullivan, et al, 1993;
Peffley and Rohrschneider , 2003.
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Democratic longevity: political tolerance is higher in
more stable democracies that have persisted over time
(political learning)
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Federalism: citizens in federal systems are more tolerant
than citizens in unitary systems (lessons of compromise)
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Targeted militarized disputes: political tolerance
declines when states are targeted in a militarized dispute
(bunker mentality)
 Selective recruitment
 Adult political socialization
 What democratic theory does this
study support and why?
Individual Sources of Political Tolerance among Masses:
What makes some people more tolerant than others?
Social
Environment
Individual
Characteristics
Political
Tolerance
(Education, etc.)
(Personality, etc.)
(Least-liked)
Situational
Triggers
(Threats of violence,
News coverage, etc.)
Individual Sources of Political Tolerance among Masses:
What makes some people more tolerant than others?
Individual Sources of Political Intolerance
among Masses
Two Characteristics Associated with Intolerance
 Personality characteristics: Dogmatism (closed-mindedness) (Rokeach,
1973)
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There are two kinds of people in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against it.
To compromise with our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side.
A group which tolerates too many differences of opinion among its own members cannot exist for long.
Of all the different philosophies that exist in the world there is probably only one that is correct.
Social conservatism: Social Conformity vs Autonomy (Feldman, 2003)
Conformity Versus Autonomy
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A. We should admire people who go their own way without worrying about what others think.
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B. People need to learn to fit in and get along with others.
Socialization and Child-Rearing Values
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A. The most important values children should learn are obedience and respect for authority.
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B. The most important values children should learn are independence and self-reliance.
Freedom Versus Fear of Disorder
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A. It is most important to give people all the freedom they need to express themselves.
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B. Our society will break down if we allow people to do or say anything they want.
Note: Respondents were asked whether they strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the above statements. Survey
items were administered randomly.
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Classical Theory:
 Formal education has an indirect effect through
personality (authoritarianism) and social conservatism
 Conventional political activity (e.g., voting) has little
effect; partisan activities can lead to less tolerance.
 Theory as a “reconstructive ideal”?
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Elitist Theory
 Personality has an effect (hard to change)
 Elites are more tolerant than masses
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What is the better safeguard against repression?
 Elites?
 Mass education?