COM215 800
Taejin Jung, Ph.D.
Week 8: Theory & Public
Opinions
The Movement toward Theory

A significant advancement in PR
- “Wisdom” or “Seat-of-the-pants” thinking → Reasoned action guided by
“Theory”
- Moved from “hunches” to “reasoned action”

Theory
- A systematic interpretation of a phenomenon that specifies the relationship
between variables.

Three objectives of theory
- Organization/Explanation: why things occur regularly
- Prediction: Anticipate what outcomes and effects will occur
- Control: Which action will be most effective or appropriate/Theory suggest
guidelines for behavior
Language of Theory

A phenomenon
- The event of thing you are trying to explain
- Newton wanted to explain why things always fall down and not up

Concepts or variables
- Process that would be hard to discuss if we do not give them a name
- A form of short hand: “A force that draws things down” → “gravity”

Propositions
- Relationships between variables and establish the assumption
- Postulates or axioms
- “Hypotheses” is the tested form of propositions

Hypotheses
- Conjectural or speculative relationships between two or more variables
that can be tested empirically

Theory building
- Asking → Observing → Theorizing → Checking
Ecological Approach

Ecology & Interdependence
- Public Relations is to help organizations adjust and adapt to their
environment
- Proactive > Reactive

System (Organization) Perspective
- Goals
- Interacting units (Organization & Publics)
- Enduring time
→ The ultimate goal of systems is “survival”

Definition (Target or Boundary) of the Public
- Those with whom the organization mush establish and maintain
enduring and mutually beneficially relationship (e.g., student recruiting,
capital campaign for computer center)
Open vs. Closed Systems
Goal States
(Homeostasis)
“Structure” and
“Process”
(Morphogenesis)
Variation in the
Environment
(Input)



Social systems are relatively open or relatively closed.
Extent of closeness = Degree of insensitivity to their environment
Open systems are adroit at continually responding to change of any sort in
their environment
Excellence Theory

Evolved from the work of James E. Grunig

“What are the characteristics of an excellent
communication department?”

Public relations can be a part of planning and decision
making (dominant coalition)

Excellence theory is the search for factors that make
public relations “excellent”

Studied 327 organizations and refined a list of principles
or factors of excellence
Characteristics of Excellent PR Programs
I.
Program Level
1. Managed strategically
II.
Department Level
2. A single or integrated PR department
3. Separate function of marketing
4. Direct reporting relationship to senior management
5. Two-way symmetrical model
6. Senior PR person in the managerial role
7. Academic training in PR & professionalism
8. Equal opportunity for men and women
III.
Organizational Level
9. Participative rather than authoritarian culture
10. Symmetrical system of internal communication
11. Organic rather than mechanical organizational structure
IV.
Effects of Excellent Public Relations
12. Programs meet communication objectives
13. Reduces costs of regulation, pressure, and litigation
14. Job satisfaction is high among employees.
Contingency Theory

Evolved from the work of Glen T. Cameron

Focus on managing the conflict between an organization and its
publics

Pure Advocacy-----------------Pure Accommodation
- Advocacy: each group pursues its own self-interests
- Accommodation: each party considers the other party’s interests
- The response of conflict is some mix of advocacy and accommodation

Contingencies are the contributing factors for the selection of
strategies

Cameron identified 86 contingent variables and 12 factors
Contingency Theory
(Shin, Carmeron, & Cropp, 2006)
◙ External Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
External threats
Industry environments
Political/social/cultural
environment
Public power
Public relationships
◙ Internal Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Organization’s
development
Organization’s structure
PR department
independence
PR department
government
Top management
characteristic
Individual characteristics
Individual capabilities
Basics of Communication


S – M – C – R – (E)
Sender
- Writer must know the organization’s objective

Message
- Research on receiver’s current attitude
- Must be applicable, realistic, convincing

Media
- Select one or more fit into the audience

Receiver
- Think of “publics” or “stakeholder”
- The more you segment, the better you understand
Two-Step Flow Theory


The People’s Choice Study
Introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld in The
People’s Choice Study (1944) focused on
the process of decision-making during
the presidential election.
Mass Media
Findings
Direct influence of mass media on voting
intentions  informal, personal contact
were more influential
O/L

Assumptions
a. Individuals (opinion leaders) who pay
close attention to the mass media and its
messages receive the information
b. Opinion leaders are quite influential in
getting people to change their attitudes
and behaviors.
O/L
O/L
Uses & Gratifications Approach

Riley & Riley (1951): Children in groups of peers used adventure
stories from the media for group game.

Replacing question
“What do media to do people?”  “what do people do with the media?”

Basic assumptions
- The audience is active, and mass media use is goal oriented.
- Audience determine their need and specific media choice.
- The media compete with other sources of possible need satisfication.

Individual needs categories (McQuail, Blumler & Brown, 1972)
- Diversion (emotional release)
- Personal relationships (social utility of information conversations)
- Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self
understanding)
- Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks)
Agenda-Setting Theory
-
Media set agenda in terms of “what people think about”
Amount of Coverage Given by National News Magazines to Various Issues during the 1960s &
Rank Scores o f the Issues as “Most Important Problem Facing America” During that Period
Issue
Vietnam War
Race Relations
Campus Unrest
Inflation
Mass Media
Crime
Drugs
Environment and Pollution
Smoking
Poverty
Sex (Declining Morality)
Women’s Rights
Science and Society
Population
Number of
Articles
Coverage Rank
Important
Rank
861
687
267
234
218
203
173
109
99
74
62
47
37
36
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1
2
4
5
12
3
9
6
12
7
8
12
12
12
Framing Theory

What to say (Agenda-setting) vs.
How to say (Media Framing)

Four functions of media framing
(R. Entman)
◙ Coverage of Terrorism

Contextual coverage
- Analyzing terrorism as a general
political problem influenced by
economical and political oppression,
global politics, and local political
turmoil.
- Assigning responsibility to factors
in society as a whole

Eventual coverage
- Focus on scenes of aircraft
hijackings, hostage situations, and
bombings.
-Assign causal responsibility for
terrorism to particular individuals
and groups.
- Frames define problems
- Frames diagnose causes
- Frames make moral judgments
- Frames suggest remedies
Cultivation Theory

By George Gerbner

“Cultivation” means the teaching of a common worldview, common
roles, and common values.

Tries to determine if watching television influences viewers ideas of
what their world is like.

The heavy television viewers often give answers that are closer to the
way the world is portrayed on television.

Heavy television watching makes people feel that the world is an
unsafe place ( Fearful people might welcome repression if it helps to
reduce their anxieties, e.g., Dept. of Homeland Security)

What percentage of the world’s population lives in the US?