EXPLORING
PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2011
1
Thinking, Language,
and Intelligence
Chapter 9
2
Thinking, Language, and
Intelligence
Thinking
 Concepts
 Solving Problems
 Making Decisions and Forming
Judgments
 THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The
Fear Factor—Do We Fear the Right
Things?
3
Language
 Language Development
 Thinking in Images
 Animal Thinking and Language
4
Intelligence
 What is Intelligence?
 Assessing Intelligence
 CLOSE-UP: Extremes of Intelligence
 Genetic and Environmental
Influence on Intelligence
 Group Differences in Intelligence
Test Scores
5
Thinking
Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that
involves knowing, understanding,
remembering, and communicating.
6
Cognitive Psychologists
Thinking involves a number of mental
activities, which are listed below. Cognitive
psychologists study these in great detail.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Concepts
Problem solving
Decision making
Judgment formation
7
Concepts
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or
people. There are a variety of chairs but their common
features define the concept of a chair.
8
Category Hierarchies
We organize concepts into category hierarchies.
Courtesy of Christine Brune
9
Development of Concepts
We form some concepts with definitions. For
example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we
form concepts with mental images or typical
examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is
a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not.
Bird (mental image)
J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube
Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images
Triangle (definition)
10
Problem Solving
Problem solving strategies include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Trial and Error
Algorithms
Heuristics
Insight
11
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming,
exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
12
Heuristics
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
Heuristics are simple,
thinking strategies
that allow us to make
judgments and solve
problems efficiently.
Heuristics are less
time consuming, but
more error-prone than
algorithms.
13
Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple
principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
SPLOYOCHYG
S
PP
SL
YO
CH
YO
OC
LH
OGY
Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
begins to make sense.
14
Insight
Insight involves a
sudden novel
realization of a
solution to a problem.
Humans and animals
have insight.
Grande using boxes to
obtain food
15
Insight
From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern
University and John Kounios, Drexel University
Brain imaging and EEG
studies suggest that
when an insight strikes
(the “Aha” experience), it
activates the right
temporal cortex (JungBeeman & others, 2004).
The time between not
knowing the solution
and realizing it is about
0.3 seconds.
16
Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for
information that confirms a personal bias.
2–4–6
Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would
comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the
rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).
17
Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective. This impedes problem
solving. An example of fixation is functional
fixedness.
18
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Matchstick
Problem: How would
you arrange six
matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the
candle on a bulletin board?
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
19
The Matchstick Problem: Solution
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
20
Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution
21
Making Decision & Forming
Judgments
Each day we make hundreds of judgments and
decisions based on our intuition, seldom using
systematic reasoning.
22
Using and Misusing Heuristics
Two kinds of heuristics, representative
heuristics and availability heuristics, have been
identified by cognitive psychologists.
Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University
of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman
Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University
of Louisville and the Tversky family
Amos Tversky
Daniel Kahneman
23
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in
terms of how well they seem to represent, or
match, a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses
Probability
that what
that person
a truck
is far
and
likes poetry,
do youisthink
hisdriver
profession
greater
than an ivy league professor just because
would
be?
there are more truck drivers than such professors.
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
24
Availability Heuristic
Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?
Whatever increases the ease of retrieving
information increases its perceived availability.
How is retrieval facilitated?
1. How recently we have heard about the event.
2. How distinct it is.
3. How correct it is.
25
Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and
the inclination to explain failures increase our
overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to
overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and
judgments.
In the stock market, both
the seller and the buyer
may be confident about
their decisions on a
stock.
26
Exaggerated Fear
The opposite of having
overconfidence is
having an exaggerated
fear about what may
happen. Such fears may
be unfounded.
AP/ Wide World Photos
The 9/11 attacks led to a
decline in air travel due
to fear.
27
The Effects of Framing
Decisions and judgments may be
significantly affected depending upon how
an issue is framed.
Example: What is the best way to market
ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
28
The Belief Perseverance
Phenomenon
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to
our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely
to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of
hostility (Jervis, 1985).
29
Perils & Powers of Intuition
Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but
may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.
30
Language
Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work,
is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves
and others.
M. & E. Bernheim/ Woodfin Camp & Associates
Language transmits culture.
31
Language Development
Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images
Children learn their
native languages much
before learning to add
2+2.
We learn, on average
(after age 1), 3,500 words
a year, amassing 60,000
words by the time we
graduate from high
school.
32
When do we learn language?
Babbling Stage:
Beginning at 4 months,
the infant
spontaneously utters
various sounds, like ahgoo. Babbling is not
imitation of adult
speech.
33
When do we learn language?
One-Word Stage: Beginning at or around his first
birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a
time and is able to make family members
understand him. The word doggy may mean look
at the dog out there.
34
When do we learn language?
Two-Word Stage: Before the 2nd year, a child
starts to speak in two-word sentences. This
form of speech is called telegraphic speech
because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go
car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.
35
When do we learn language?
Longer phrases: After telegraphic speech,
children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy
get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early
elementary school they are employing humor.
You never starve in the desert because of all the
sand-which-is there.
36
When do we learn language?
37
Explaining Language Development
1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985)
believed that language development may be
explained on the basis of learning principles
such as association, imitation, and
reinforcement.
38
Explaining Language Development
2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959,
1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested
that the rate of language acquisition is so fast
that it cannot be explained through learning
principles, and thus most of it is inborn.
39
Explaining Language Development
Childhood is a critical period for fully
developing certain aspects of language.
Children never exposed to any language
(spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually
lose their ability to master any language.
40
David Hume Kennerly/ Getty Images
Michael Newman/ Photo Edit, Inc.
Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
Genes, Brain, & Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a
language, and experience modifies the brain.
41
Critical Period
Learning new languages gets harder with age.
42
Thinking & Language
Language and thinking intricately intertwine.
Rubber Ball/ Almay
43
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested
that language determines the way we think. For
example, he noted that the Hopi people do not
have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi
cannot think readily about the past.
44
Language Influences Thinking
When a language provides words for objects or events,
we can think about these objects more clearly and
remember them. It is easier to think about two colors
with two different names (A) than colors with the same
name (B) (Özgen, 2004).
45
Word Power
Increasing word power pays its dividends. It
helps explain the bilingual advantage of bilingual
children to inhibit one language while using
another.
46
Thinking in Images
To a large extent thinking is language-based.
When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However,
we also think in images.
We don’t think in words, when:
1. When we open the hot water tap.
2. When we are riding our bicycle.
47
Images and Brain
Imagining a physical activity activates the same
brain regions as when actually performing the
activity.
Jean Duffy Decety, September 2003
48
Language and Thinking
Traffic runs both ways between language and
thinking.
49
Animal Thinking & Language
Do animals have a language?
Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dance
moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar.
50
Do Animals Think?
Common cognitive skills
in humans and apes
include the following:
Concept Formation
Insight
Problem Solving
Culture
William Munoz
1.
2.
3.
4.
African grey parrot assorts red
blocks from green balls.
51
Insight
Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when
solving problems.
Sultan uses sticks to get food.
52
Problem Solving
Courtesy of Jennifer Byrne, c/o Richard Byrne,
Department of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
Apes are, much like
us, shaped by
reinforcement when
solving problems.
Chimpanzee fishing for ants.
53
Animal Culture
Animals display customs and culture that are
learned and transmitted over generations.
Michael Nichols/ National Geographic Society
Copyright Amanda K Coakes
Dolphins using sponges as
forging tools.
Chimpanzee mother using and
teaching a young how to use
a stone hammer.
54
Do Animals Exhibit Language?
There is no doubt that
animals communicate.
Copyright Baus/ Kreslowski
Vervet monkeys,
whales and even honey
bees communicate
with members of their
species and other
species.
Rico (collie) has a
200-word vocabulary
55
The Case of Apes
Gardner and Gardner (1969) used
American Sign Language (ASL) to train
Washoe, a chimp, who learned 181 signs
by the age of 32.
56
Gestured Communication
Animals, like humans, exhibit communication
through gestures. It is possible that vocal speech
developed from gestures during the course of
evolution.
57
But Can Apes Really Talk?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Apes acquire their limited vocabularies with a
great deal of difficulty, unlike children who
develop vocabularies at amazing rates.
Chimpanzees can make signs to receive a
reward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key
receives a reward. However, pigeons have not
learned a language.
Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lack
human syntax.
Presented with ambiguous information, people
tend to see what they want to see (perceptual
set).
58
Sign Language
American Sign Language (ASL) is
instrumental in teaching chimpanzees a
form of communication.
Paul Fusco/ Magnum Photos
When asked, this chimpanzee uses
a sign to say it is a baby.
59
Syntax Comprehension
Others have shown that pygmy chimpanzees can develop
even greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances
in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993). Kanzi
(shown below) developed vocabulary for hundreds of
words and phrases.
Copyright of Great Ape Trust of Iowa
60
Conclusions
If we say that animals can use meaningful
sequences of signs to communicate a capability
for language, our understanding would be
naive… Steven Pinker (1995) concludes, “chimps
do not develop language.”
61
Intelligence
Do we have an inborn general mental capacity
(intelligence)? If so, can we quantify this
capacity as a meaningful number?
62
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn
from experience, solve problems, and use our
knowledge to adapt to new situations.
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the
intelligence test measures. This tends to be
“school smarts.”
63
Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Have you ever thought that since people’s
mental abilities are so diverse, it may not be
justifiable to label those abilities with only one
word, intelligence?
64
General Intelligence
The idea that general intelligence (g) exists
comes from the work of Charles Spearman
(1863-1945) who helped develop the factor
analysis approach in statistics.
Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things
65
General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g)
is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed
by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary
examinations do well on paragraph
comprehension examinations, a cluster that
helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors
include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning
ability factor.
66
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the idea
that intelligence comes in multiple forms.
Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish
one type of ability but not others.
People with savant syndrome excel in abilities
unrelated to general intelligence.
67
Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and
speculates about a ninth one — existential
intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to
think about the question of life, death and existence.
68
Robert Sternberg
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with
Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather
than eight.
1.
2.
3.
Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed
by intelligence tests.
Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us
adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required
for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
69
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are
both novel and valuable. It correlates somewhat
with intelligence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel
ways.
A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks
new experiences rather than following the pack.
Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from
within.
A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive
70
environment allows creativity to bloom.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive,
understand, and use emotions (Salovey and
others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence
measures overall emotional intelligence and its
four components.
71
Emotional Intelligence: Components
Component
Perceive emotion
Understand emotion
Manage emotion
Use emotion
Description
Recognize emotions in faces,
music and stories
Predict emotions, how they
change and blend
Express emotions in different
situations
Utilize emotions to adapt or be
creative
72
Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional
intelligence and question whether we stretch this
idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our
emotions.
73
Assessing Intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence testing as a
method for assessing an individual’s mental
aptitudes and comparing them with others using
numerical scores.
74
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and his
colleague Théodore
Simon practiced a more
modern form of
intelligence testing by
developing questions
that would predict
children’s future
progress in the Paris
school system.
75
Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman
adapted Binet’s test for
American school
children and named the
test the Stanford-Binet
Test. The following is the
formula of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ),
introduced by William
Stern:
76
David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the
Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
and later the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC), an
intelligence test for
school-aged children.
77
WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other
aspects related to intelligence that are designed to
assess clinical and educational problems.
78
Principles of Test Construction
For a psychological test to be acceptable it must
fulfill the following three criteria:
1. Standardization
2. Reliability
3. Validity
79
Standardization
Standardizing a test involves administering the test
to a representative sample of future test takers in
order to establish a basis for meaningful
comparison.
80
Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped
pattern called the normal curve.
81
Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To
establish reliability researchers establish different
procedures:
1.
2.
Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two
equal halves and assessing how consistent the
scores are.
Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two
occasions to measure consistency.
82
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity
of a test refers to what the test is supposed to
measure or predict.
1.
2.
Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test
measures a particular behavior or trait.
Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test
in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
83
Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of
people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ
70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135).
These two groups are significantly different.
84
High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high
intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well
adjusted, and unusually successful academically.
85
Mental Retardation
Mentally retarded individuals required constant
supervision a few decades ago, but with a
supportive family environment and special
education they can now care for themselves.
86
Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen
steadily by an average of 27 points. This
phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.
87
Genetic and Environmental
Influences on Intelligence
No other topic in psychology is so passionately
followed as the one that asks the question, “Is
intelligence due to genetics or environment?”
88
Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted
children together support the idea that there is a
significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
89
Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in
verbal ability to their adopted parents.
90
Heritability
The variation in intelligence test scores
attributable to genetics. We credit heredity
with 50% of the variation in intelligence.
It pertains only to why people differ from one
another, not to the individual.
91
Environmental Influences
Studies of twins and adopted children also show
the following:
1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show
similarity in intelligence scores.
2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly less
similarity in their intelligence scores.
92
Early Intervention Effects
Early neglect from caregivers leads children to
develop a lack of personal control over the
environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence.
Romanian orphans with minimal
human interaction are delayed in their development.
93
Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays dividends,
which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased
schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.
To increase readiness for schoolwork,
projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.
94
Group Differences in Intelligence
Test Scores
Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we
make sense of these differences?
95
Ethnic Similarities and Differences
To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbing
but agreed upon facts:
1. Racial groups differ in their average
intelligence scores.
2. High-scoring people (and groups) are more
likely to attain high levels of education and
income.
96
Racial (Group) Differences
If we look at racial differences, white Americans
score higher in average intelligence than black
Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European New
Zealanders score higher than native New
Zealanders (Braden, 1994).
White-Americans
Black-Americans
Average IQ = 100
Average IQ = 85
Hispanic Americans
97
Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups are
largely environmental, as if one environment is
more fertile in developing these abilities than the
other.
98
Reasons Why Environment Affects
Intelligence
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Races are remarkably alike genetically.
Race is a social category.
Asian students outperform North American
students on math achievement and aptitude tests.
Today’s better prepared populations would
outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence
tests.
White and black infants tend to score equally well
on tests predicting future intelligence.
Different ethnic groups have experienced periods
of remarkable achievement in different eras.
99
Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and females
differ in various abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers
2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies
3. Girls are better at locating objects
4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color
5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement
6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but
under perform at math computation
7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do
100
The Question of Bias
Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense
that they are sensitive to performance differences
caused by cultural differences.
However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense
that they accurately predict performance of one
group over the other.
101
Test-Takers’ Expectations
A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern
that one will be evaluated based on a negative
stereotype.
This phenomenon appears in some instances in
intelligence testing among African-Americans
and among women of all colors.
102