Memory & Thought
(Cognition)
Chapter 11 (AP Review Book)
The filing system
 Pledge of Allegiance, Indians starting line-up, 3rd grade,
Lines from your favorite movie, State capitals, First love
 Going beyond memory, how do we think?
 How do we solve problems?
 How do we store memories?
Memory
 Memory: capacity to register, store,
and recover information over time
(learning)
 Cognition – all the mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing and
remembering information
 Metacognition- thinking about how
you think
Theories of Memory
 Molecular Theory (James McConnell)
 Memory stored in RNA molecules
 EX: Flatworm experiment
McConnell made the astonishing discovery that memory has an
identifiable chemical basis. He trained flatworms to run mazes, and
noted how long it took to do so.
Then McConnell took the trained worms and ground them up and
fed them to untrained worms. The untrained worms learned to run the
maze a lot faster than the original worms had, apparently demonstrating
that there was some sort of information in the trained worms that survived
being ground up and ingested. The hypothesis was that the
information was somehow encoded in RNA molecules, and could
be physically transferred from one individual to another.
Information Processing
Model
 This is information processing model: compare your
mind to a computer
 3 steps
 Encoding – input received from our sensory receptors
 Storage – retain info in our brains for sometime (range: 1
second to a lifetime)
 Retrieval- when needed we can access it
Levels of Processing
 Robert Lockhart and Fergus Craik – Levels of Processing
Model
 How long and how well we remember information depends
on how deeply we process the information when we encode
it
 A. Shallow Processing - we assign NO relevance to information
we store at this level, includes superficial sensory information
that emphasizes physical characteristics, like lines, curves or
sensory stimuli
 B. Semantic Encoding – deeper level, emphasizes the meaning
of verbal input, can be passed to short or long term memory
Levels of Processing Cont.
 C. Deep processing – when we attach meaning to
information and create associations between new and
old information/memories

Best way to remember a new person’s names at a social event

For Example - “Hi Sam, I am Megan” (in your head your thinking,
Sam- cool name, the only Sam I know is Sam Booth and he is hot,
this guy is kinda hot too! Hello Sam!)
Creating associations between new memory and old
memories is called – Elaboration
Processing information deemed important or relevant more
deeply by relating the new information to ourselves, making it
easier to recall – self-reference effect or self-referent encoding
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory
 We have 3 different memory systems characterized by
time frames
 1) Sensory memory – memory system that holds external
events from the senses for up to a few seconds
 2) Short-term memory – “working memory”, 20 seconds
before forgotten, capacity is 7 + or - 2
 3) Long-term memory – relatively permanent storage
with unlimited capacity
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory Cont.
 1) Sensory Memory: TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW!
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Visual encoding
Iconic memory
Acoustic encoding
Echoic memory
Selective attention
Automatic processing
Parallel processing
Effortful processing
Feature extraction
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory Cont.
 2) Short Term Memory: TERMS TO DEFINE AND
KNOW! Think of examples of each too!
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Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Chunking
Mnemonic devices –
Method of loci –
Peg word system –
Many of the above strategies help convert info from short term to
long-term
Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Stage
Model of Memory Cont.
 3) Long Term Memory: TERMS TO DEFINE AND
KNOW! Think of examples of each too!
 Subdivided into 2 Types:
 1) Explicit memory (or declarative)

Semantic memory

Episodic memory
 2) Implicit memory (or nondeclarative)

Procedural memory
Organization of Memories
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples of
each too!
 1)HierarchiesConcepts Prototypes 2) Semantic Networks 3) Schemas Script4) Connectionism -
Related Memory Terms
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of
examples of each too!
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) –
 Neural network or Parallel processing model
Biology of Long-term
Memory
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples of
each too!
 Long-term Potentiation (LPT)
 Flashbulb memory
 Thalamus
 Hippocampus
 Anterograde amnesia
 Retrograde amnesia
 Cerebellum
Retrieving Memories
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples of
each too!
 Retrieval – the process of getting information out of storage
 Recognition
 Recall
 Reconstruction
Summarize Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve Theory(131)
Also define these terms related to his research: savings method,
overlearning effect, serial positioning effect, primacy effect and
recency effect
Retrieving Memories
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples of
each too!
 Retrieval Cues Priming Encoding specificity principle  Context- dependent memory effect Mood congruence –
 State-dependent -
 Distributed practice  Massed practice -
Retrieval, Reconstruction
& Cues
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of examples of
each too!
 Repression – (Freud)
 Confabulation
 Summarize Elizabeth Loftus’ Theory on Confabulation (eye
witness testimony)
 Misinformation effect
 Misattribution error
Retrieval + Interference =
Forgetting
 TERMS TO DEFINE AND KNOW! Think of
examples of each too!
 Forgetting – the inability to retrieve information
 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
 Interference
 Proactive interference
 Retroactive interference
Combat Forgetting
 Overlearning – continue to practice after memorizing
information makes it more resistant to forgetting
 Elaborative rehearsal – repetition that creates
associations between new memory existing memories in
LTM
 Differs from maintenance rehearsal which is just utilizing
STM to keep info 20 seconds
 What else can we use to combat forgetting (think vocab)?
Language
 Phonemes
 Morphemes
 Grammar
 Syntax
 Semantics
Language Acquisition
 Babbling
 Holophrase or holophrastic speech
 Telegraphic speech
 Overgeneralizations (overregularization)
Theory on Language
Acquisition
 Nature (nativist)
vs
Nurture____________
 Noam Chomsky
/
Behaviorist, like Skinner
 Language acquisition
device
/
Shaping, reinforcement
 Critical Period
Genie the feral child
Theory on Language
Acquisition
 Social Interactivist Perspective- most psychologist and
linguists believe our acquisition of language is a combo
of both the nature and nurture side of the debate
 Bio and Cognitive Psychologists Have proven we have dense neuron connections during he
1st few years of life = critical to master language
Theory on Language
Acquisition
Benjamin Whorf (linguist)
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis - language guides and
determines our thinking & perceptions
* largely discredited and controversial
Most researchers and theorist believe the opposite:
our experiences, perceptions, and thinking guide our
language acquisition
Problem Solving
 Algorithm
 Heuristic
 Insight learning – WOLFGANG KOHLER &
chimpanzees (co-founder of Gestalt Psych)
 Trial and Error Approach
 Inductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning
Wolfgang Kohler:
____?____ Learning
Kohler: Insight Learning
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Kohler attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than
trial and error.
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Kohler's experiments consisted of placing chimps in an enclosed area and presenting
them with a reward that was out of reach, such as bananas.
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In one experiment, Kohler placed bananas outside Sultan's cage and two bamboo
sticks inside his cage. Neither stick was long enough to reach the bananas so the only
way to reach the bananas was to put the sticks together. After some contemplation,
Sultan put the two sticks together and created a stick long enough to reach the bananas
outside his cage.

Another study involved bananas suspended from the roof. The chimps first tried to
knock them down by using a stick. Then, the chimps learned to stack boxes on top of
one another to climb up to the bananas.
Wolfgang Kohler: Insight
Learning
 Kohler described three properties of insight learning:
 First, insight-learning is based on the animal perceiving
the solution to the problem.
 Second, insight-leaning is not dependent on rewards.
 Third, once a problem has been solved, it is easier to
solve a similar problem.
Obstacles to Problem
Solving
 You must define the following terms & give an example of
each = quiz next class!!! Know all homework terms on next
three slides plus all the terms on the guided notes handout
from today
 Fixation
 Mental set
 Functional fixedness
 Availability heuristic
 Representative heuristic
 Framing
 Anchoring effect
Biases
 You must define the following terms & give an example
of each = quiz next class!!!
 Confirmation Bias
 Belief perseverance
 Belief bias
 Hindsight bias
 Overconfidence bias
Creativity
 You must define the following terms & give an example
of each = quiz next class!!!
 Creativity
 Incubation
 Convergent thinking
 Divergent thinking
 Brainstorm
Sensory Memory:
 Echoic Memory
 Holds auditory information for approximately 1 second
 EX: Teacher asks OFF TASK student a question
 Iconic memory –
 Form of sensory memory that holds visual information
Long-Term Memory:
2 Types
 Explicit (declarative) Memory – conscious memory we
recall as needed (facts, events)
 Example- episodic, semantic
Implicit (nondeclarative) Memory – unintentional
memories, don’t realize we know it until we do it
Example – procedural
Explicit Memory: 2 Types
 1. Semantic Memory
 Memory of factual knowledge about the world, concepts,
definitions, and grammar
 EX: Spelling, Xmas. Independence Day
 2. Episodic Memory
 Memories of one’s personal experiences in life
 EX: 1st date & kiss, personal diary
Implicit Memory
 Procedural Memory
 Memories of actions, skills, operations, not requiring
conscious recollection
 ITS AUTOMATIC
 EX: Throwing a ball, riding a bike, tying a tie, juggling,
driving, muscle memory
Unique Type of Memory
Yet another specific type of memory:
Eidetic Memory (“photographic memory”)
 Retain detailed visual image for several minutes, or
longer, like Sheldon Cooper
Review: What type of memory do
these terms fall under?
 Selective Attention
 Feature Extraction
 Effortful Processing
 Parallel processing
 Automatic Processing
Review: What type of memory do
these terms fall under?
 Chunking
 Rehearsal
Stages of Memory
Short-term Memory to
Long-term Memory
HOW can we do this?
Chunking
Rehearsal
Peg word System
Mnemonic device – story, visual, rhyming, acronyms
Method of Loci
Short-Term Memory
EXERCISE
 Please read the word aloud as a class
 After all words are complete you will be instructed to do
something!
Short-term memory
 Handout coming
around with the
words
Stages of Memory
 Levels of processing
 Maintenance rehearsal (shallow processing)
 Repetition
 Elaborative Rehearsal (Deep processing)
 Making associations between new & old information
Stages of Memory
 50 states in 1 minute
 Activity
 On a separate/scrap piece of paper
 List the 50 states!
 You have 1 minute, GO!
Stages of Memory
 Encoding/Retrieving strategies in LTM
 A very simple illustration of the fact that people encode and
search for information in predictable ways
 Please read lists of states, in order originally written.
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Familiar patterns
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Alphabetical order
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Region

Similarity of name (“New”)
Familiar ways to individual (Systematic)

Where one has lived, a significant event took place, NFL teams
Mnemonic Devices
 Peg word
 Narrative chaining
 Rhyming
 Song
 Method of loci
Chunking?
 Here is a list of numbers
 17761234201143212323
Now list the numbers
Now look at the list one more time
1776 1234 2011 4321 2323
Now list again
 CHUNKING MAKES SENSE
Stages of Memory
 3. Long-Term Memory
 Storing almost unlimited amounts of information over
long periods of time
 LTM information organized by categories and features
 Who is on the $10 dollar bill?
 What direction is Lincoln facing?
Long-Term Memory
Exercise
 Whose portrait is on the $10 bill… Hamilton
 Is Lincoln facing to the right
or left on the penny?
Simon
Simon Anyone?
 http://neave.com/simon/
Retrieval of Information
 Key to retrieval is organization and deep processing
 Recognition
 Identify previously learned information
 EX: Photographs, Objective type tests, 7 dwarfs
 Name the 7 dwarfs
Retrieval of Information
 Recall

Active reconstruction of memory, no cue

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Confabulation

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
EX: Essay tests
Unconsciously filling in memory gaps
Eye witness testimony
Schemas

Learned generalizations and preconceptions about objects, events,
and people

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize & interpret
information

Created based on expectations by past experiences
Schemas & Constructive
Memory
 Rumor Chain
 Does long-term memory get distorted during encoding or
retrieval by prior knowledge, particularly by schemas
about the world, which include gender role expectations
and other bias?
 3 people to the hall!!
 Do not laugh when errors are made
Rumor Chain Story
 A Boeing 747 had just taken off from the Dallas-Fort Worth
Airport for Chicago when a passenger near the rear of the
aircraft announced that the plane was being taken over by the
People’s Revolution Army for the liberation of the oppressed.
The hijacker then held a 22-caliber pistol to the head of James
Buckner, a flight attendant, and forced him to open the door
to the cockpit. There, the hijacker confronted the pilot,
Melanie Adams, and ordered her to change course for
Mexico. The pilot radioed the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport Air
Traffic Control Center to report the situation, but then
suddenly hurled the microphone a the hijacker, who fell
backward through the open cockpit door and onto the floor,
where angry passengers took over from there. The plane
landed back at the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport a few minutes
later and the hijacker was arrested.
Rumor Chain Story

Errors made in story?

RECONSTRUCTION – retrieval can be distorted by adding dropping
or changing details to complete the picture or story

Did the description get shorter?

Were details left out? (Name of Airport, terrorist group)

This is called leveling

Misinformation effect - incorporating misleading information in to
memories
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Confabulation – combing and substituting memories from events other
than the one you’re trying to remember

The descriptions will reflect the tellers’ schemas

EX: Pilots are men, women are flight attendants
 Boy
Niece
Sister
 Dolls
Dance
Aunt
 Female
Beautiful
Daughter
 Young
Cute
Hair
 Dress
Date
Pretty
Primacy & Recency Effect
 How many people recalled the word “girl” =
reconstructive memory!
 Recall scores should be…
 Serial Positioning Effect
 Primacy (best at the beginning of the list)
 Recency (best at the end of the list)
 The work of Herman Ebbinghaus
Forgetting
 Forgetting
 Inability to retrieve information in Long Term Memory
 Herman Ebbinghaus- “Forgetting Curve”

Steep decline initially then gradual decline

Conducted one of the 1st studies of retention and forgetting in
the late 1800s. He learned a large number of nonsense
syllables, 3-letter combinations that had no meaning, studying
the material until he could recite it perfectly. He then, tested
himself on what he remembered after certan periods of time
had elapsed.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting
Curve
Forgetting
 Interference (Inhibition) Theory
 Memories inhibit retrieval of other memories
 Proactive Interference

Prior info inhibits retrieval of new memories, can’t remember the
new

( you move, asked your address you give old one)
Retroactive Interference
 New inhibits retrieval of prior memories, cant remember older
info

(insert example here)
Repression
 Freudian Defense Mechanism
 Unpleasant experiences are kept out of consciousness
and cannot be retrieved voluntarily
 EX: False accusation based in repressed memories
Amnesia
 Causes
 Organic: Head injury, physical trauma or disease
 Rapid forgetting
 New information fades from memory with a few minutes
 Old memories, such as those from childhood, are retained
 Permanent
Amnesia
 Psychogenic: Mental disorder, post-traumatic stress, defense
mechanisms

Sometimes called Traumatic Amnesia

Loss of one’s identity and personal history without obvious
brain injury

Rare

Some never recover past memories and have to start new lives
Amnesia


Anterograde

Inability to form new memories, can’t put them into explicit memory

Damage to hippocampus

People find themselves constantly forgetting information, people or events
after a few seconds or minutes

Data does not transfer successfully from their conscious short-term
memory into permanent long-term memory
Retrograde

Memory loss for a segment of past usually around injury or trauma

The loss of pre-existing memories to conscious recollection

The person may be able to memorize new things that occur after the onset
of amnesia

Unable to recall some or all of their life or identity prior to the onset.
Movies about amnesia
 50 first dates (Organic Amnesia, Anterograde Amnesia)
Brain Diseases
 Alzheimer’s
 Alzheimer’s disease is a chronic brain disease that gradually
erodes an individual’s memory, intellectual abilities and
personality.
 During the early stages, the most obvious symptom is an
inability to learn and remember new information.
 In advanced stages, the ability to think, speak or perform such
basic tasks as getting dressed or eating is severely impaired. The
time between diagnosis and death typically ranges from seven to
10 years.
Maze