Nonsense
Robert J. Gula
Chapter 1-8 Review
“I just know that that doesn’t make any sense,
but I’m not sure why.”
Chapter 1
Everyday Nonsense
General Principles…
“Patterns that seem to characterize the ways
that people tend to respond and think…”
People:
1. “Tend to believe what they want to believe
2. Tend to project their own biases or
experiences upon situations
General Principles Cont.

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3. tend to generalize from a specific event
4. tend to get personally involved in the
analysis of an issue and tend to let their
feelings overcome a sense of objectivity
5. are not good listeners (hear selectively)
6. are eager to rationalize
7. are often unable to distinguish what is
relevant from what is irrelevant
General Principles Cont.
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8. are easily diverted from the specific issue at
hand
9. are usually unwilling to explore thoroughly
the ramifications of a topic; tend to
oversimplify
10. often judge from appearances
11. often simply don’t know what they are
talking about, especially in general discussion
General Principles Cont.


12. rarely act according to a set of consistent
standards
13. often do not say what they mean and do
not mean what they say”
“Most people want to feel that issues are
simple rather than complex, want to have
their prejudices confirmed, want to feel that
they ‘belong’ with the implication that others
do not, and need to pinpoint an enemy to
blame for their frustrations.”
--J.A.C. Brown, Techniques of Persuasion
Chapter Two
Emotional Language
What are certain emotional
needs that people have?
Why is a person who knows
how to deceive us dangerous?
Why is it important for people
to know how their emotions
can be preyed upon?
APPEAL TO PITY

“Instead of giving carefully documented
reasons, evidence, and facts, a person appeals
to our sense of pity, compassion, brotherly
love.”
PLEA FOR SPECIAL TREATMENT

A variation of the appeal to pity
APPEAL TO GUILT
Three points about the appeal to guilt
1. “No one has the right to prey upon our
emotional balance
2. Unless sound reasons can be given for the
speculation that we ought to feel guilty, that
speculation is worthless
3. Even if we were to feel guilty, we have been
given no reasons to do what the ad suggests.”
APPEAL TO FEAR

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“Tries to frighten us into a specific action or
into accepting a specific belief.”
“‘If you don’t do X, then Y will happen.’”

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Sometimes personally directed
Sometimes more subtle
APPEAL TO SINCERITY

–noun, plural -ties. freedom from deceit,
hypocrisy, or duplicity; probity in intention or
in communicating; earnestness.
www.dictionary.com
APPEAL TO SINCERITY


“A person adopts a very earnest, sincere,
possibly self-effacing, and certainly humble
tone.”
“The emphatic verb forms (forms with the
auxiliaries does and do) and adverbs– really,
genuinely, truly, absolutely, actually– are
used to add to the feeling of sincerity.”
APPEAL TO HOPE

noun 1.the feeling that what is wanted can be had or
that events will turn out for the best: to give up hope.
2.a particular instance of this feeling: the hope of
winning. 3.grounds for this feeling in a particular
instance: There is little or no hope of his recovery.
4.a person or thing in which expectations are
centered: The medicine was her last hope.
5.something that is hoped for: Her forgiveness is my
constant hope.
www.dictionary.com

Sometimes, hope is all we have…
APPEAL TO FLATTERY

–noun, plural -ter⋅ies. 1.the act of
flattering.2.a flattering compliment or speech;
excessive, insincere praise.
www.dictionary.com

“When we are flattered, we tend to confuse
our positive feelings toward the flatterer with
what that person is actually saying.”
APPEAL TO STATUS

–noun 1.the position of an individual in relation to
another or others, esp. in regard to social or
professional standing.2.state or condition of affairs:
Arbitration has failed to change the status of the
disagreement. 3.Law. the standing of a person
before the law.–adjective 4.conferring or believed to
confer elevated status: a status car; a status job
www.dictionary.com
APPEAL TO THE BANDWAGON

Appeals to our need to belong
APPEAL TO LOVE/
APPEAL TO TRUST/ APPEAL TO FRIENDSHIP

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“’Either you’re with me or you’re against
me!’ ‘If you really trusted (loved) me, then
you’d go along with me!’”
BTW– not going along with someone doesn’t
mean that you do not love or trust that person,
or that you are not his or her friend
“…remember that true friendship sometimes
demands that we disagree.”
APPEAL TO PRIDE OR LOYALTY
PRIDE–noun 1.a high or inordinate opinion of one's own dignity,
importance, merit, or superiority, whether as cherished in the mind or as
displayed in bearing, conduct, etc.2.the state or feeling of being proud.3.a
becoming or dignified sense of what is due to oneself or one's position or
character; self-respect; self-esteem.4.pleasure or satisfaction taken in
something done by or belonging to oneself or believed to reflect credit
upon oneself: civic pride. 5.something that causes a person or persons to
be proud: His art collection was the pride of the family. 6.the best of a
group, class, society, etc.: This bull is the pride of the herd. 7.the most
flourishing state or period: in the pride of adulthood.

LOYALTY-–noun, plural -ties. 1.the state or quality of being loyal;
faithfulness to commitments or obligations.2.faithful adherence to a
sovereign, government, leader, cause, etc.3.an example or instance of
faithfulness, adherence, or the like: a man with fierce loyalties.
www.dictionary.com

ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM

… “the appeal to the crowd, to the mob, to the
gallery.”
Chapter 3
Emotional Language: Propaganda
BANDWAGON

“’Everyone is doing it. Therefore, you should
be doing it too.’”
REPETITION

“The propagandist says something over and
over again.”
CONFIDENCE

“The propagandist also speaks confidently.
He gives the impression of knowing what he
is talking about.”
EARNESTNESS AND SINCERITY

“The more earnest and sincere a person
appears, the more readily he will be
believed.”
OVERSIMPLIFICATION

“The propagandist takes one side of the
situation and treats that one side as if it were
the only side.”
NAME-CALLING

“The propagandist assigns abusive epithets or
uses names that have strong pejorative
emotional associations to people or ideas he
doesn’t like, and he assigns flattering epithets
or uses names that have strong positive
emotional associations to people or ideas he
does like.”
STEREOTYPING

“The propagandist takes one characteristics of
a person, exaggerates it, and then regards it as
the only characteristic.”
THE GLITTERING GENERALITY

“The propagandist makes broad, sweeping
statements, usually ones with complex and
far-reaching ramifications, but he ignores the
complexities and the ramifications.”
SLOGANS

“The audience will remember the clever
slogan without challenging the meaning…”
TRANSFER

“This technique encourages us to transfer our
emotions from one source to another.”
TESTIMONIAL

“An important or prominent person or
organization speaks on behalf of an idea or
product.”
PLAIN FOLKS

“I’m just like one of you.”
SNOB APPEAL

“… propaganda may exploit a person’s need
for status or his desire to feel special.”
STATISTICS WITHOUT CONTEXT

“The propagandist may give you plenty of
statistics, but he rarely gives you the
background of those statistics.”
LARGE NUMBERS

“…a variation of the bandwagon technique.”
THE MANUFACTURED
PROBLEM– THE BAD GUY, THE
SCAPEGOAT

“The propagandist creates or exaggerates a
problem, tries to convince you how serious
the problem is, and then appeases you by
blaming someone for that problem or by
suggesting that his proposal will solve the
problem.”
ARRANT DISTORTION/
CARD STACKING

“Sometimes the propagandist selects his
information to present a one-sided view;
sometimes he may even make up data to suit
his own purposes; sometimes he simply lies.”
THE COMMAND

When the propagandist uses this technique, he
is appealing to those that like to be told what
to do.
Chapter 4, Emotional
Language and Suggestion

The power of suggestion…
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It reflects a belief or attitude that is not
specifically articulated
Puts an idea in the mind of the listener
Ways to Affect Suggestion
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The hint
 Tests the ground
 Provides a protective barrier
 Subject to misinterpretation
Accent
 Loaded with implication
Selection
 Careful selection of evidence
Tone of Voice
Ways to Affect Suggestion Cont…
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Phraseology
 The pitcher is half empty
 The pitcher is half full
Word Choice
 Connotative word choice
 Metaphor
Juxtaposition
 Two statements are made. No connection is expressed.
Because of the proximity of the two statements, a
connection is made.
Ways to Affect Suggestion Cont…
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Image Words
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Words that make things sound better or worse
than they are
Irrelevant Detail

Often inserted to bias the audience
Ways to Affect Suggestion Cont…
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Controlling phraseology
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Negative image words
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Suggesting an answer through the wording of the
question
Make things sound worse than they actually
might be
Pompous language
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Jargonese, doublespeak
To make the mundane and trivial seem important
Chapter 5– Logical
Fallacies

Fallacy– error in thinking or reasoning

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Thought process/ conclusions NOT error in fact
or belief
Why might an argument be unsuccessful?
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Evidence isn’t thorough
Evidence is not accurate
A good relationship doesn’t exist b/t the evidence
and conclusion
Chapter 6
Irrelevance
Argumentum ad hominem

The argument directed against the speaker
rather than toward what the speaker is saying

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Abusive ad hominem argument– the personality
of the person is criticized or attacked rather than
what the person is saying
Circumstantial ad hominem argument– when the
speaker judges someone and not the suggestion of
that person
Guilt by Association

A person is judged because of his
associations, his friends, his family, not
because of anything he has done.
Poisoning the Well

When an opponent uses this technique, he
casts such aspersions on a person that the
person cannot possibly recover and defend
himself without making matters worse.
Passing the Buck

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Tu quoque argument (shifting the blame) you
do it, too!
Counter question– instead of answering a
specific question, the speaker poses another
question
Irrelevant reason/ question

Arguments have nothing to do with the
proposal up for discussion
Non sequitor

It does not follow– claims to make a cause
and effect relationship when, in fact, there is
no logical connection between the premise
and the conclusion.
Argumentum Ad Baculum/ Appeal to
Force

The use of pressure or force may sometimes
be useful, but it does not constitute a good
reason for doing something
Appeal to Ignorance/ Argumentum Ad
Ignorantiam

One should not accept premises without
proof. But what is important to realize is that
the absence of proof does not necessarily
mean that the premise is false; it merely
means that there is no proof to substantiate
that premise.
Appeal to Authority/ Argumentum Ad
Verecundiam

A statement of opinion or of some outside
source is often referred to in order to
strengthen an argument. The statement or
opinion of that outside source, however, may
not be relevant to the specific issue at hand.
Ipse Dixit


He said it
A popular or prestigious person or someone
with impressive titles or credentials is cited to
give support to an idea or argument. BUT this
person might be outside of his or her area of
expertise.
Appeal to the Past (var. of ipse dixit)

Quoting famous sources out of context
Vague Appeal to Authority

A leading medical institution says…
Apriority

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A type of false authority
Arguing from a theory
Appeal to Faith

Just trust me
Sacred Cow

Ideas that we hold dear: justice, freedom,
democracy, law, religion
Aphorisms, Slogans, Cliches,
Proverbs, Platitudes


Familiar sayings sometimes used as authority
to convince or persuade
Such use of these familiar sayings offers
neither proof nor evidence, nor do they even
strengthen an argument
Jargon

Sometimes used to give the impression of
authority
Appeal to Tradition or Precedent

Circumstances change with time; what may
have been an appropriate way of doing things
five years ago is not necessarily an
appropriate way now. Tradition and precedent
should be respected but not idolized.
Etymology

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Citing the origin of a word to support a
position
Don’t ignore the facts that the meanings of
words change
A word is important, not for what it once
meant, but for what it means now
Appeal to Numbers

Numbers can indicate splendid precision, but can
also be used to mislead or deceive
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Mean—average
Mode– most frequent number
Median– number in the middle of a series
Percentages– often sounds more impressive than the figures
Vague statistics
Misleading statistic
Appeal to large numbers
Misleading sampling technique
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Limited sample
Small sample
Confident Speculation

When people make assertions that are speculative
but are expressed as if they were fact
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Personal assurances– “I’m sure that”
Appeal to personal assurances– “From my experience I’ve learned
that”
Domino Theory– “If we do A, then B will happen. If B happens, then
C will happen.” etc.
Appeal to omniscience– when people speculate about what might
have happened if something else had not happened
Confusing speculation with fact– it is fine to speculate, but none of us
are omniscient
Chapter 7
Diversion
Red Herring

A detail or remark inserted into a discussion,
either intentionally or unintentionaly, that
sidetracks the discussion

Humor, sarcasm, ridicule, innuendo, parody,
bodily gesture, witty remark, interpreting literally
what is said figuratively, upsetting someone,
petty objection, feigning ignorance
The Straw Man

When you take something your opponent has
said, exaggerate or distort it, and then attack
what you have exaggerated or distorted, you
have created a straw man.
Extending an opponent’s ideas, put words into his
mouth, attacking an example, attacking the
alternative, shifting to another problem
Chapter 8
Ambiguity and Incorrect Inference
Verbal Ambiguity

“Verbal ambiguity occurs when one uses a
word or phrase that has two possible
meanings or interpretations or when there is
an event that can have more than one
interpretation.”
Ambiguity of Statement

-results from imprecise language
Ambiguity of Tone

HOW you say something vs WHAT you say
Irony

Meaning the opposite of what you say
Accent

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1. quoting out of context
2.quoting selectively
3. damnation by faint praise
Amphiboly

“The ambiguous position of a word in a
sentence”
Grammatical Ambiguity

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1. a phrase is restrictive or nonrestrictive
2. faulty or incomplete comparisons
3. ambiguous references of pronouns
4. specific words
Juxtaposition

“Two ostensibly unrelated statements or
events appear in such a fashion that we are
encouraged to infer a connection between
them…”
Enthymeme

Incomplete argument/ shortened syllogism
Chapter 9
Confusion and Incorrect Reference
Verbal Confusion

Many sources

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Similar words with different meanings
General meaning without connotations
Forgotten primary meanings
Equivocation

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
1. a word has two or more different meanings
2. when the meaning of a word shifts during
discourse
3.relative words
Fustianism

Bombastic, pretentious, fancy, inflated
language and ideas can sometimes
camouflage the fact that a speaker has nothing
of consequence to say, is speaking nonsense,
that he doesn’t know what he is talking about,
that he is just throwing words around, and that
his words mean nothing
“If we are to talk about void, then we must define it
and, if we can define it, then it must exist…”
Double Standards/
Doublethink



A double standard can occur when a person
claims to sponsor a certain belief except when
that belief applies to him.
“Do what I say, not what I do”
Doublethink– Orwell, the ability to entertain
sumultaneously two contradictory beliefs
Limited Perspective

Evaluating a situation only from one
perspective
Circular Reasoning/ Begging the Question


When an argument uses one of its premises as
a conclusion
The conversation with George and Martha…
Confusing Complement with the Opposite

If I say that a performance was not good, I am
not saying that it was a bad one
Composition

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This fallacy occurs when one projects the
properties of the parts to the property of the
whole
Just because each band member is good
doesn’t mean that the band as a group is good
Division


The assumption that what is true for the whole
is also true for each of the parts
Just because Stephen got into Yale assuming
he must have been a good high school student
Improper Distribution or Addition


Assumes that you can add items that cannot
be added
Ex. Let’s cut the pledge of allegiance each
morning, we will save two minutes a day, ten
per week and add a day to the year…
Definition Because of Common
Characteristics

You assume that a person or thing is a
member of a particular group just because that
person or thing shares a quality with other
members of that group
Confusing Opinion/ Speculation/ Inference
with Fact

i.e rumors
All/ Some or One/ Most

Two or three members of the city government
are discovered to have embezzled: “The
whole government is a bunch of crooks,”
remarks someone
Chapter 10
Confusion of Cause and Effect
Confusing Contributory/ Sufficient/ and
Necessary Causes

When people do not distinguish between these
three different relationships

i.e. “Smoking causes lung cancer”
Confusing Remote Cause with Immediate
Cause

Be wary of the tendancy to rationalize… how
far back can one go in assigning cause?

For want of a nail, the show was lost example
Rationalization

Assigning causes that aren’t truly causes

“If I hadn’t stayed up late, I wouldn’t have
fumbled.”
Reversal of Cause and Effect

Biting one’s fingernails makes a person
nervous…
The Post Hoc Fallacy


“after this, therefore because of this”
Superstitions…
Inferring that Simultaneous Occurences Necessarily
Have a Cause and Effect Relationship

Because the air conditioner came on at the
same time as the bell rang… one must have
caused the other
False Cause/ Coincidence

“Many people assign as cause-and-effect
relationship to confirm their prejudices or to
rationalize their errors or inadequacies.”
Chapter 11
Oversimplication
Accident

When a general rule is applied to a situation
in which it was not intended to apply. This
fallacy suggests that there are no exceptions
to a general rule or principle.
Complex Question

Occurs when an issue is posed that has several
ramifications but whose ramifications are
either ignored or not recognized
Excluded Middle/ Either… or Fallacy/
Black White Fallacy


“Either you support my proposal or you
don’t”
Slogans love this… America– Love it or leave
it.
Pigeonholing

Stripping the issue of its complexities and by
forcing that issue into some convienent
general category
Jumping to Conclusions

Underwear in wastebasket example…
Fallacy of the Beard

A person commits this fallacy when he argues
that there is no distinction between two
phenomena because there is no distinct point
of distinction between the two phenomena
Absolutes

Every, everyone, everything, all, always…
The False Mean/ Fallacy of
Compromise


Sometimes compromise is necessary. But it is
not always a desirable solution. Sometimes an
extreme position is warranted.
Quitting smoking example
Circular Definition/ Begging the
Question

You define a word so narrowly that it has to
mean what you want it to mean…
Fallacy of the Fall

A type of rationalization for a person who
doesn’t want to be bothered or who doesn’t
want to take some decisive action.
Fallacy of Reversion

People use this fallacy when they argue that
it’s a waste of time to do something because
things will revert to their present state
Fallacy of Time

Rationalizing taking no action by leaving
matters up to time
Fallacy of the Worse Evil


They ask you to consider what might have
been while depreciating what actually is…
So you broke your leg. Cheer up! It could
have been your eye instead.
Fallacy of Determination

This fallacy suggests that anything is
possible…
Fallacy of Idealism

This type of glibness is used by those whose
experience is limited and often by those
whose lives have been sheltered
Fallacy of Tacit Argument

“No one is complaining; therefore, they all
agree.”
False Dilemma

Two extremes are presented as if they were
the only alternatives when, in fact, there are
actually several alternatives between the two
extremes.
Chapter 12
Erroneous Comparison and Contrast
Abuse of Analogy




1. If there is not significant similarity
2. when significant dissimilarity goes
unnoticed
3.When on particular similarity is used to
equate two very different things
4. when a person uses the terms of one
element to predict the terms of another
element
Misuse of Statistics


Faulty or deceptive percentages
Invalid comparison and contrast
Irrelevant Contrast

When two areas that are no longer relevant
are compared/ contrasted
Fallacies of Consistency

An invalid contrast that sometimes tries to
compare apples with oranges (two items that
are significantly dissimilar)
Chapter 13
Evasion
The Half-truth

You answer a question by interpreting the
words of that question literally, disregarding
the spirit of the question
Answering a Question Ambiguously

You respond to a question by answering the
opposite of that question
Camouflaging an Answer

Hiding an answer or giving a vague answer in
response to a question
Procrastination

“Wait a little, this is not the time.”
One Step at a Time

Not facing everything all at once
Too Many Ifs

Presents different consequences of taking
action… all which must be examined
Domino Theory

If we do A, then B will happen. If B happens,
then C will happen. If C happens, then D will
happen…”
Red Herring

See Ch. 7
Changing the Words

Perhaps responding by redefining or changing
a word directed at you or previously spoken
Argument of Tradition and Precedent

“Well, we’ve always done it this way; I don’t
see why we should change now.”
Rephrasing the Question

Providing an answer in the form of the
question rephrased
Gula, Robert J. Nonsense: Red Herrings, Straw
Men and Sacred Cows: How We Abuse Logic
in Our Everyday Language.. Mount Jackson,
Virginia: Axios Press, 2006.