Chapter 7
Class and Stratification in the
United States
1
Social Stratification


Hierarchy of social groups based on
control over resources.
Sociologists examine social groups that
make up the hierarchy in a society to
determine how inequalities persist over
time.
2
Life Chances


Access to resources such as food,
clothing, shelter, education, and health
care.
Affluent people have better life chances
because they have greater access to:




quality education
safe neighborhood
nutrition and health care
police protection
3
Systems of Stratification



Open system - boundaries between
hierarchies may be influenced by
people’s achieved statuses.
Closed system - boundaries between
hierarchies are rigid, people’s positions
are set by ascribed status.
No stratification system is completely
open or closed.
4
Open and Closed Systems Differ
in the Availability of …
Social Mobility
Process of changing one's social class.
 Intergenerational
 Intragenerational
5
Slavery

Throughout recorded history 5 societies
have been slave societies:




Ancient Greece
Roman Empire
United States
Caribbean and Brazil.
6
Characteristics of Slavery in
the U.S.
1.
2.
3.
4.
It was for life and was inherited.
Slaves were considered property, not
human beings.
Slaves were denied rights.
Coercion was used to keep slaves “in
their place”.
7
Caste System



Status is determined at birth based on
parents’ ascribed characteristics.
Cultural values sustain caste systems
and caste systems grow weaker as
societies industrialize.
Vestiges of caste systems can remain
for hundreds of years after they are
“officially” abolished.
8
In Caste Systems …
Perpetuation of class is assured because:
 Persons must follow the same
occupations as their parents
 Persons must marry within their own
caste
 One may not have any social relations
with members of other castes
9
The Class System



A type of stratification based on the
ownership and control of resources and on
the type of work people do.
Horizontal mobility occurs when people
experience a gain or loss in position and/or
income that does not produce a change in
their place in the class structure.
Vertical mobility is movement up or down the
class structure is.
10
Is stratification unfair? It
creates inequality.


In the U.S. we view stratification as unfair
if it is based upon ascribed statuses.
Why?
It runs counter to our value of equal
opportunity.
11
U.S. culture values achievement more than inherited
wealth and status, and our occupations are not directly
inherited. Yet, people tend to have occupations of a
status similar to that of their parents.
How does this come about?
12
The influence of family on
social class
As a general rule, children have
occupations of a status similar to that of
their parents because the family’s status
and income determine children’s
aspirations and opportunities.
13
Marxian Criteria for Class
Structure
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ownership of the means of
production.
Employing others.
Supervising others on the job.
Being employed by someone else.
14
Marx’s View of Stratification
15
Max Weber: Wealth,
Prestige, and Power



Wealth is the value of a person’s or family’s
economic assets, including income, personal
property, and income-producing property.
Prestige is the regard with which a person or
status position is regarded by others.
Power is the ability of people or groups to
achieve their goals despite opposition from
others.
16
Socioeconomic Status (SES)

A combined measure that, in order to
determine class location, attempts to
classify individuals, families, or
households in terms of factors such as
income, occupation, and education.
17
Weberian Model of the Class
Structure



Upper Class - comprised of people
who own substantial income-producing
assets.
Upper-Middle Class - based on
university degrees, authority on the job,
and high income.
Middle Class - a minimum of a high
school diploma or a community college
degree.
18
Weberian Model of the Class
Structure



Working Class - semiskilled workers,
in routine, mechanized jobs, and
workers in pink collar occupations.
Working Poor - live just above to just
below the poverty line.
Underclass - people who are poor,
seldom employed, and caught in longterm deprivation.
19
Weber’s Multidimensional Approach to
Social Stratification
20
Stratification
21
Middle Class and the American
Dream

Four factors have eroded the American
Dream for this class:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Escalating housing prices
Occupational insecurity
Blocked mobility on the job
Cost of living squeeze that has penalized
younger workers, even when they have
more education and better jobs than their
parents.
22
Pink-collar Occupations

Relatively low-paying, nonmanual,
semiskilled positions primarily held by
women, such as day-care workers,
checkout clerks, cashiers, and
waitpersons.
23
Underclass

Those who are poor, seldom employed,
and caught in long-term deprivation
that results from low levels of education
and income and high rates of
unemployment.
24
Median Income by State
25
Income and Wealth



Income - wages, salaries, government
aid, and property
Wealth - value of economic assets,
including income and property.
Wealth can generate income.
26
Income inequality is higher in the
United States than in most nations.
Why do you think this
might be the case?
27
How can we measure income
inequality?
One way is to look at the way
income is distributed.
28
Income distribution in the
United States





Richest 20% receives 50% of all income
Next 20% receives 23% of all income
Next 20% receives 15% of all income
Next 20% receives 9% of all income
Poorest 20% receives 3% of all income
29
What do we mean by income distribution? Let’s say we
have ten people in a room. How much income
inequality do we have in the room?
Person
Person
Person
Person
Person
Person
Person
Person
Person
Person
1 income is $20,000
2 income is $60,000
3 income is $25,000
4 income is $110,000
5 income is $80,000
6 income is $200,000
7 income is $15,000
8 income is $250,000
9 income is $40,000
10 income is $50,000
30
How can we measure
inequality?


In addition to income, we might also
look at the way wealth is distributed.
The richest 20% of the U.S. population
currently hold 84% of all wealth.
31
Median Household Income by
Race/Ethnicity in the United States
32
Defining Poverty

Sociologists distinguish between absolute and
relative poverty.


Absolute poverty exists when people do not
have the means to secure the most basic
necessities of life.
Relative poverty exists when people may be able
to afford basic necessities but are still unable to
maintain an average standard of living.
33
% U.S. Population Without Health
Insurance
34
Official Poverty Line

The federal income standard that is
based on what is considered to be the
minimum amount of money required for
living at a subsistence level. This is
$19,157 for a family of four.
35
% Distribution of Poverty in
the U.S.
Education
All
Races
White
African
American
Hispanic
No diploma
21.8
15.7
34.8
26.7
High School
Graduate
11.9
9.4
22.0
15.4
Some college
8.5
7.0
11.5
10.6
College
degree
(or more)
4.3
3.7
7.1
7.5
36
% Distribution of Poverty in
the U.S.
Age
All
White
African
American
Under 18
17.8
10.5
33.6
28.9
18–24
18.1
14.5
28.1
22.6
25-44
11.2
7.8
20.2
18.4
45-64
65 and
above
8.8
7.0
16.8
14.4
9.8
7.5
23.9
18.7
Hispanic
37
Feminization of Poverty

The trend in which women are
disproportionately represented among
individuals living in poverty.


Women bear the major economic and
emotional burdens of raising children when
they are single heads of households but
earn 70 and 80 cents for every dollar a
male worker earns.
More women than men are unable to
obtain regular, full-time, employment.
38
What are the causes of
poverty?



“The Culture of Poverty” : A set of values that
emphasizes living for the moment, rather than thrift,
investment in the future or hard work is what keeps
the poor from upward social mobility.
Changing labor market: De-industrialization. “If there
are no good jobs available, then we don’t need to
psychoanalyze people to figure out why they are
poor.”
Job Deskilling: A reduction in the proficiency needed
to perform a specific job that leads to a
corresponding reduction in the wages for that job.
39
Functionalist Perspective: DavisMoore Thesis
1.
2.
3.
Societies have tasks that must be
accomplished and positions that must
be filled.
Some positions are more important for
the survival of society than others.
The most important positions must be
filled by the most qualified people.
40
Functionalist Perspective: DavisMoore Thesis
4.
5.
The positions that are the most important
for society and that require scarce talent,
extensive training, or both must be the most
highly rewarded.
The most highly rewarded positions should
be those that are functionally unique (no
other position can perform the same
function) and on which other positions rely
for expertise, direction, or financing.
41
Meritocracy

A hierarchy in which all positions are
rewarded based on people’s ability and
credentials.
42
Conflict Theory’s Response?



Can we really rank positions in terms of
their value to society?
Even if we could, do the rewards
attached to positions really reflect their
“value to society”?
Is there a scarcity of talent?
43
What are symbolic interactionists
interested in with respect to inequality?



How are inequality and unequal status
symbolically communicated in
interactions between people?
The use of “deference”
Judith Rollins’ study, page 221
44
Sociological Explanations of
Social Inequality in the U.S.
Functionalist Some social inequality is necessary for the
smooth functioning of society and thus is
inevitable.
Powerful individuals and groups use
Conflict
ideology to maintain their favored positions
in society at the expense of others. Wealth is
not necessary in order to motivate people.
The beliefs and actions of people reflect their
Symbolic
interactionist class location in society.
45
U.S. Stratification in the
Future

Many social scientists believe that trends
point to an increase in social inequality in the
U.S.:



The purchasing power of the dollar has stagnated
or declined since the early 1970s.
Wealth continues to become more concentrated at
the top of the U.S. class structure.
Federal tax laws in recent years have benefited
corporations and wealthy families at the expense
of middle and lower-income families.
46