ENHANCING NAVIGATION SAFETY FROM THE
PERSPECTIVE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
The case of a shipping company in Thailand
Yiarayong Klangboonkrong
Final presentation of the master thesis
Master of Business Administration
School of Management
May 2008
Agenda
I.
Introduction
II.
Literature review
III. Research framework and methodology
IV. The case organisation
V.
Discussion
VI. Conclusion and recommendations
Slide 2
The research was conducted as an inquiry into a
contemporary phenomenon in a shipping company
Rationale
Aims and objectives
•
Shipping regarded as the most
internationally recognised and the most
dangerous industry
•
Common acceptance of human element
as the most important factor contributing
to maritime safety – reportedly 80% of
maritime casualties resulted from human
error
•
Training as the widely suggested means
of improving human element
•
Possible opportunities for improvement
using KM concepts
Scope of the research
Slide 3
The research aimed to find solutions feasible for a realworld company in an academically-sound manner
Rationale
Aims and objectives
Scope of the research
•
Investigate the current situation of the
case organisation
•
Examine gaps and unexploited
opportunities in managing knowledge
gained from experiences and practices
•
Suggest possible solutions specific to the
company, taking into consideration its
special characteristics
•
Propose illustrative framework of
resources and processes in KM derived
from the empirical situation
Slide 4
The research focused on a particular area of knowledge
in a single company
Rationale
•
Research focus was placed on how the
company deals with knowledge in Bridge
Team Management (BTM) for the purpose
of improving navigation safety
performance
•
Single case study conducted in one
shipping organisation
Aims and objectives
Scope of the research
Slide 5
Agenda
I.
Introduction
II.
Literature review
III. Research framework and methodology
IV. The case organisation
V.
Discussion
VI. Conclusion and recommendations
Slide 6
Concepts relevant to the empirical situation have been
reviewed
Knowledge as a strategic asset
Knowledge management (KM)
and organisational learning (OL)
Enhancing
navigation safety
Dealing with different types of
knowledge
Safety in the maritime industry
Slide 7
Organisational knowledge is widely accepted as the only
source of competitive advantage
•
Organisational knowledge is valuable, rare, inimitable, and nonsubstitutable
(Bollinger and Smith, 2001).
•
Bou-Llusar and Ciprés (2006) identified internal knowledge transfer as crucial for
managing strategic knowledge.
•
Organisational learning plays a central role in generating the competitive
advantage (Pemberton and Stonehouse, 2000).
•
A strong organisational culture and organisation learning are sources of
sustainable competitive advantage (Martín-de-Castro et al., 2006) .
Slide 8
KM plays a role of providing “the methods and tools to
build up the intelligence of the system required to reach
the business objective” (Border, 2006).
Organisational
memory
Application of
knowledge
Organisational
learning
Creation of
knowledge
Innovation
Source: Diakoulakis et al. (2004)
Slide 9
Core processes of KM should be holistically considered
in concert
Knowledge
goals
Knowledge
assessment
Knowledge
identification
Knowledge
retention
Knowledge
acquisition
Knowledge
utilisation
Knowledge
development
Source: Probst et al. (2000)
Knowledge
sharing/distribution
Slide 10
Recent literature suggests that OL and KM are
complementary
•
KM is a directive process involving deliberate interventions whereas OL
attributes to changes in the organisational knowledge base (Probst et al., 2000).
•
OL assumes knowledge as an inevitable result of learning but not as the focus
of the concept (McElroy, 2000).
•
Knowledge creation is the main linkage of OL and KM, for knowledge generated
by OL should be systematically managed by KM (Loermans, 2002).
Slide 11
Knowledge exists in two basic forms – explicit and tacit
•
Explicit knowledge is relatively easy to be codified and shared. It is related to
established and organised work processes (Heath, 2003).
•
Tacit knowledge is experiential and less susceptible to codification and sharing.
Also regarded as “know-how,” it is acquired through experience and often
resembles intuition (Heath, 2003).
Slide 12
There exist different opinions on how tacit knowledge
should be managed
•
A number of commentators argue that tacit knowledge needs to be codified for
others to understand (e.g. Border (2006)) whereas others argue that tacit
knowledge is best shared by personal interactions (Lang, 2001; Kreiner, 2002).
•
Lang (2001) argue that complete explication may reduce the resourcefulness
and the strategic value of knowledge.
•
In case of knowledge codification, it is necessary to know the potential users
and their purposes of using knowledge (Hall, 2006).
•
Not only knowledge has to be understood, learning involves absorbing new
perspectives, practices, logic, and common wisdom of causal relationships
mutually shared by practitioners or member of a community (Lang, 2001).
Slide 13
Workplace learning often occurs informally, hence the
importance of informal learning
•
Formal education and experience
should be complementary
(Paloniemi, 2006).
•
Experience may have both positive
and negative implications on a
worker’s learning motivation
(Paloniemi, 2006).
•
Social participation is a key to
experience-based learning
(MacNeil, 2004; Paloniemi, 2006).
Formal
learning
Learning by
reflection
Informal
learning
Theoretical
knowledge
Competence
Practical
knowledge
Source: Svensson et al. (2004)
Slide 14
Communities of Practice (CoPs) is a concept believed to
be capable of preserving tacit knowledge in a living form
•
A CoP is “a group of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a
passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this
area by interacting on an ongoing basis” (Wenger et al., 2002).
•
Basic elements of a CoP consist of a community, a domain of knowledge, and a
shared practice (Wenger, 1998).
•
The issue of whether a CoP has to be “emergent” or able to be “managed” has
remained controversial among commentators (Pemberton et al., 2007).
•
A CoP may help address the problems associated with managed learning
(Mittendorff et al., 2006).
Slide 15
Management commitment, employee’s involvement, and
safety management system are key dimensions of the
safety culture
•
“Safety culture is the enduring value and priority placed on worker and public
safety by everyone in every group at every level of an organisation” (Zhang et
al., 2000)
•
Safety culture plays an important role even in the presence of a safety
management system (Kenney and Kirwan, 1998).
•
The importance of management influence is widely accepted. In the shipping
industry, however, the employees are almost constantly detached from shore
managers, hence the implications on safety performance (Ellis, 2005).
Slide 16
Issues derived from the literature review
•
The strategic value of organisational knowledge and OL as a means of
achieving competitive advantage
•
Complementary properties of OL and KM
•
Strategic properties of tacit knowledge and implications on knowledge sharing
•
Contributions of workplace learning to managing tacit knowledge
•
Importance of safety culture and management commitment and safety
performance
Slide 17
Agenda
I.
Introduction
II.
Literature review
III. Research framework and methodology
IV. The case organisation
V.
Discussion
VI. Conclusion and recommendations
Slide 18
Research framework
Corporate characteristics/constraints
Corporate culture
Safety culture
Critical knowledge asset
identification
Implications of knowledge
content/disparity on
sharing/distribution process
Critical knowledge asset
classification
Tacit knowledge
Critical knowledge asset
Bridge Team Management (BTM)
- Passage appraisal, planning,
execution and monitoring
- The bridge organisation and
teamwork
- Pilotage
- Communication
- Ship handling
- Electronic navigation
Tacit or
explicit?
- Passage appraisal, planning,
execution and monitoring
- The bridge organisation and
teamwork
- Pilotage
- Communication
Explicit knowledge
- Passage appraisal, planning,
execution and monitoring
- Ship handling
- Electronic navigation
Knowledge
disparity
Senior deck officers
Interactive, collective, and
experience-based learning
Possible concepts: communities,
forums
Mentoring
held by
target users
Target
users
Feedback
Junior deck officers
Prescriptive learning and
reflection of others’ past
experiences
Possible concepts: training,
mentoring
All deck officers
Formal, classroom-format
training and simulation
Safer navigation
Proper implementation and development of bridge team
procedures
Slide 19
Concepts from literature and empirical findings led to
research framework and propositions
Research propositions
1. The tacit dimension of a certain knowledge asset, given its nature of content and
condition of utilisation, has to be managed differently from its explicit
counterpart.
2. Disparity in knowledge held by knowledge users has to be taken into account
when considering interventions, especially when targeting tacit knowledge.
Slide 20
Case study method was used, as the research is based
on the realism paradigm
•
A paradigm is a basic belief system spanning across ontology, epistemology,
and methodology.
– Realism assumes an external reality though not fully apprehensible
– Subjective perceptions lead to the reality which exists independently of such
perceptions. Reality is arrived at by triangulation.
– Contextual contingency
– Appropriate for “how” and “why” questions
•
Case study is “a research strategy which focuses on understanding the
dynamics present within single settings” (Amaratunga and Baldry, 2001).
– Case study is helpful for handling complex social phenomena in which
underlying mechanisms and factors are not easily correlated.
Slide 21
Validity and reliability has to be assured in a case study
research
Criteria
Description of criteria
Case study techniques
Ontology
1. Ontological appropriateness
Research problem dealing with complex
social science phenomena involving reflective
people
Selection of a research problem, for example, it is a
how and why problem
2. Contingent validity
A system involving generative mechanisms
rather than direct cause-and-effect
Theoretical and literal replication, in-depth questions,
emphasis on "why" issues, description of the context of
the cases
Neither value-free nor value-laden, rather
value-aware
Multiple interviews, supporting evidence, broad
questions before probes, triangulation. Self-description
and awareness of own values. Published reports for
peer review.
4. Methodological trustworthiness
Trustworthy - the research can be audited
Case study database, use in the report of relevant
quotations and matrices that summarise data, and of
descriptionsof procedures like case selection and
interview procedures
5. Analytic generalisation
Analytic generalisation (that is, theory
building) rather than statistical generalisation
(that is, theory-testing)
Identify research issues before data collection, to
formulate an interview protocol that will provide data for
confirming or disconfirming theory
6. Construct validity
(n/a)
Use of prior theory, case study database, triangulation
Epistemology
3. Multiple perceptions of participants
(and of peer researchers)
Methodology
Source: edited from Healy and Perry (2000)
Slide 22
Case study protocol was developed accordingly
•
Interview participants
– Members of shore-based management (middle managers, superintendent,
operational staff)
– Five senior deck officers (Master and Chief Officers)
•
Interview questions
– Unstructured (for shore staff) and semi-structured (for sea staff)
•
Data analysis
– Based on theoretical propositions
– Empirical pattern compared with a predicted one, i.e. that stated in the
proposition
•
Limitations
– Single case
Slide 23
Agenda
I.
Introduction
II.
Literature review
III. Research framework and methodology
IV. The case organisation
V.
Discussion
VI. Conclusion and recommendations
Slide 24
The shipboard organisation
MASTER
•
DECK
DEPARTMENT
ENGINE
DEPARTMENT
CHIEF OFFICER
CHIEF ENGR.
SECOND OFFICER
SECOND ENGR.
THIRD OFFICER
THIRD ENGR.
CHIEF COOK
BOSUN
FOURTH ENGR.
MESSMAN
DECK FITTER
ELECTRICAL ENGR.
ABs
ASST. ELEC. ENGR.
DECK BOYS
ENG. FITTER
–
–
–
•
OILERS
ENGINE BOYS
Employment nature
Ship-to-shore connections
–
–
•
Contractual
Usually 9 months/contract
Important role of personal relationships
Satellite connection
Physical contact possible in ports
Characteristics of a shipping company
–
–
–
–
Fundamentally mobile workers
Volatile job markets
High uncertainty of teamwork
compositions
Limited presence of IT facilities on board
vessels
Slide 25
Some of the company’s activities are directed to
improving the knowledge of seafarers
•
Physical presence is required for most activities and remains a very important
concern for coordination.
•
Activities include
– In-house and public training in classroom-format
– E-learning
– On board training by training superintendents
– Lessons learned and good practices
– Temporary employment of an officer
– Intensive training and workshop for the promotion of deck officers
•
Measurements of training mostly is done quantitatively and based more on
inputs (e.g. number of officers trained each year).
•
Training perceived as “good to have” but not always “relevant”
Slide 26
Bridge Team Management (BTM) is identified as the
critical knowledge
•
Collisions have contributed to the largest proportion of the company’s major
claims. The company’s incident rate is slightly above the industry’s average.
•
None of the company’s collisions was related to equipment malfunctions.
•
From past incidents, the causes identified include ambiguous communication,
improper watchkeeping, commercial pressure, inadequate experience, fatigue,
and negligence.
•
The management treat BTM as a high priority. The policy recently issued states:
– BTM training course is to be prescribed to every deck officers
– Each officer is required repeat the training yearly during his leave between
contracts
Slide 27
BTM training course is conducted in classroom format
with simulation modules
•
BTM is equivalent to Crew Resource Management
(CRM) in aviation
•
BTM course introduces the concept of a navigation
team to ship masters and watch officers and frames
their decision making process toward establishing
watch conditions during the voyage (Conrad, 2007).
•
BTM course is designed to minimise the risks of
incidents by encouraging safe behaviour.
•
BTM modules include passage planning, ship handling,
electronic navigation, bridge organisation, teamwork,
pilotage, communication.
•
For some commentators, direct training is considered
less usual than informal learning (Swift, 2000)
Slide 28
Deck officers trained in a BTM course showed similar
opinion towards BTM training
Necessity of training
•
In general, respondents expressed a
positive attitude toward training.
The training method
•
Experience was perceived as crucial for
task executions and safety but experience
by itself does not guarantee desired
outcomes.
Management policy on BTM training
“… people most prone to accidents are
either veterans or rookies.”
•
Respondents regarded soft skills as
needing more improvement than technical
skills.
•
No affirmation of training being perceived
as the appropriate means of improvement.
Slide 29
Deck officers trained in a BTM course showed similar
opinion towards BTM training
Necessity of training
The training method
•
Respondents regard technical component
of the BTM course as basic. They regard
“soft” aspects as needing improvement.
•
One respondent advocated seminars,
discussions, and workshops.
“That’s how you can use your own
experience to learn things.”
Management policy on BTM training
•
Combining junior and senior officers may
help in mentoring but pose difficulty in class
training.
•
Willingness to learn is doubtful.
Respondents suggested that the relevance
of a training course be demonstrated.
Slide 30
Deck officers trained in a BTM course showed similar
opinion towards BTM training
Necessity of training
•
The management has announced its
policy on BTM training that every deck
officer has to attend a training course on a
yearly basis in order to serve on another
vessel.
•
BTM training is well-accepted among the
respondents but none agreed with the
requirement for yearly attendance.
The training method
Management policy on
BTM training (1/2)
“One time training is good. More than that
is too boring for us and too expensive for
the company.”
“After the first training, further improvement
should be more customised.”
Slide 31
Deck officers trained in a BTM course showed similar
opinion towards BTM training
Necessity of training
•
Respondents pointed to the actual work
condition as having a significant impact.
“I suspect that it will be just as bad as it is if
they invest a lot in training but continue to be
cheap on supplies to the ship.”
The training method
•
Management policy on
BTM training (2/2)
Issue of “susceptibility to training:” There is
little belief that the training is an effective
agent for promoting change. Respondents
preferred the other way around.
“We are training a lot of people who are not
ready for it.”
•
A mere training was seen as an overly
simplistic approach to developing seafarers.
Slide 32
Agenda
I.
Introduction
II.
Literature review
III. Research framework and methodology
IV. The case organisation
V.
Discussion
VI. Conclusion and recommendations
Slide 33
P1: The tacit dimension of a certain knowledge asset
has to be managed differently from its counterpart (1/2)
•
Empirical finding suggests that the intervention for managing tacit knowledge
should take into account
a) the nature of knowledge content
b) the condition of knowledge utilisation.
Knowledge
distribution method
Classroom training
Method suitable for
the sharing of BTM
knowledge
Nature of knowledge content
Condition of utilisation
Informative, explicit, and technical
Accuracy in understanding and
execution in a context where
prohibitive condition is insignificant
Intuitive, tacit, social
Collective tasks in the presence of
prohibitive and complex conditions,
e.g. commercial pressure and lack
of operational support
Slide 34
P1: The tacit dimension of a certain knowledge asset has to
be managed differently from its counterpart (2/2)
Nature of knowledge
content
•
•
•
Experiential
Involves complex interplay of technical,
commercial, human, and organisational
factors
To be accompanied by attitude
Implications for managing
BTM knowledge
•
•
•
Condition of knowledge
utilisation
•
•
•
Tasks delivered collectively
Presence of prohibitive conditions
(commercial pressures, lack of
operational support, etc.)
Operating in locations remote from the
management
•
Collective learning necessary
Training requiring accompanying
measures
Social measures unique to an
organisation needed
The same subjective norms and
ideals to be shared by
management and seafarers
Slide 35
P2: Disparity in knowledge held by knowledge users has
to be taken into account when considering interventions
Visualising knowledge
transparency
Recognising knowledge
disparity
Visualising transparency and recognising disparity helps a practitioner:
•
•
•
Find out what knowledge assets locate with whom
Configure the delivery of new knowledge, either formally or informally, to the
pool of knowledge users
Benefit from those with relatively larger knowledge repertoire e.g. by mentoring
Note: Knowledge disparity among deck officers of the same rank is highly subtle.
Knowledge transparency is an organisation’s ability to maintain the overall picture of
its knowledge asset (Probst et al., 2000).
Slide 36
Issues raised by the two propositions are preconditions
of collective knowledge building
Interaction/communication
Transparency
Building collective knowledge
Integration
Preconditions identified by Probst et al. (2000)
Slide 37
Recommendations for the case organisation
•
Securing consistency in implicit and explicit communications and shaping
appropriate context for using knowledge
•
Establishing knowledge goal(s)
•
Achieving adequate knowledge transparency
•
Collective learning for complementing one-way knowledge distribution
•
Utilising own past experiences
Slide 38
Agenda
I.
Introduction
II.
Literature review
III. Research framework and methodology
IV. The case organisation
V.
Discussion
VI. Conclusion and recommendations
Slide 39
The research has led to the conclusion of managing
non-technical knowledge for navigation safety
•
This single-case study research focused on bridge team management (BTM)
due to its significant impact on navigation safety of the case organisation. Its
entire spectrum of knowledge, both technical and non-technical, has been
addressed through formal training.
•
Important concerns raised by respondents involve the susceptibility to learning
and working condition.
•
Propositions have been made with regards of
– The nature of knowledge content
– The condition of knowledge utilisation
– Knowledge transparency and disparity
•
Suggestions have been made based largely on the above dimensions.
Slide 40
Several concepts should be further studied for
understanding maritime safety and KM in shipping
•
Safety culture and learning organisation
– How safety culture and organisational learning impact each other?
•
Safety management and knowledge management
– How safety management and knowledge management impact each other?
– How does an organisation develop mutual processes to benefit from both
constructs?
•
IT for KM in the shipping industry
– How to develop an IT system appropriate for addressing the constraints
present in a shipping organisation?
•
Subjective norms of seafaring communities
– How do subjective norms shared by seafaring communities of a certain
national culture impact the culture and the safety performance of a shipping
organisation?
Slide 41
Thank you
Slide 42