English 9A: Argumentative
Section 2:
 Summary and Analysis Essay
 Proposal Essay
Logos
Logic
Aristotle’s
Rhetorical
Triangle
Ethos
Credibility
Pathos
Empathy
Subject
Audience
Purpose
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English 9A: Argumentative
Informational Text
Evaluating an Argument: And the verdict is…
An argument is a series of statements designed to convince
you of something. When you evaluate an author’s argument,
you act somewhat like a juror serving on a trial. Like a juror,
you need to analyze the evidence presented to you and
decide whether the argument is sound. The following tips
and the chart on the next page will help you determine
whether an author’s argument is credible, or believable:
1. Understand the claim, or opinion. First, read
through the argument to make sure that you
understand the matter being discussed. Identity what
the author is trying to prove, which is called the
claim, or opinion. Often the author’s opinion is
stated in the form of a generalization, or a broad
statement that covers many situations. For example,
the following statement is a generalization that
expresses an opinion: all jurors should be allowed to
take notes during a trial. Try to restate the author’s
opinion in your own words.
2. Identify the support. An author must provide
support for a claim in order to create a persuasive
argument. Here are some common types of support
that authors use:
Logical appeals. To show that their
opinions are valid, authors present reasons,
statements that explain why the author holds
an opinion. For example, the following
statement provides a reason for the author’s
opinion: All jurors should be allowed to take
notes during a trial because notes can help
them remember important information for
reaching a verdict.
Evidence is the information that authors use
to support their reasons. Every
generalization, to be believable, should be
backed up by evidence. There are several
types of evidence:
 Facts
 Statistics (number facts)
 Examples
 Quotations from or opinions of
experts
Sometimes writers use analogies, another
type of logical appeal to help them explain a
point. An analogy is a type of comparison in
which writers usually explain something
complex or unfamiliar in terms of something
familiar.
Emotional appeals. To win readers over to their
opinions, authors sometimes appeal to readers’
emotions rather than their reason. Writers, for
instance, might want their readers to feel outrage
over an injustice or to feel sympathy for a
victim. Emotional appeals can be effective tools,
but watch out for arguments that rely heavily on
emotion at the expense of logic. It’s usually a
sign that an argument is weak. Emotional
appeals include
 Loaded words (words with strong
emotional connotations)
 Anecdotes (brief stories)
3. Evaluate the evidence. An argument is only as
strong as its evidence. Ask yourself: “does the
evidence directly support the author’s reasons? Does
the author present sufficient evidence to back up
generalizations and to prove the claim? Has the
author loaded the argument with emotional appeals
instead of proving valid evidence?
4. Identify the author’s intent. Finally, think about
why the author is making this argument. As far as
you can tell, has the author carefully weight all the
evidence before arriving at an opinion? Does the
author instead seem to be biased or prejudiced? Note
how the author’s intent, or purpose, influences the
tone of the argument. For example, if the author
wants to urge readers to take action, the tone might
be strongly emotional.
5. Create a chart. To help you evaluate an argument,
make a chart like the one shown here. Such a chart
will help you see the strengths and weaknesses of an
argument.
Evaluating an Author’s Argument
Claim, or opinion:
Logical appeals
Reason 1:
Evidence:
Reason 2:
Evidence:
Emotional appeals
Loaded words:
Anecdotes:
Tone:
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English 9A: Argumentative
Common Fallacies
1. Ignoring the burden of proof: failing to support one’s claim (ua: unsupported assertion)
a. Ex: certain music should be banned (thesis) because it makes kids kill themselves (claim):
i. What’s the evidence?(refutation)
2. Begging the question: to assume as true precisely what needs to be proven
a. Ex: those arrested shouldn’t have lawyers present during questioning (thesis) because criminals
don’t deserve such rights (premise).
i. Assumes everyone that’s arrested is guilty (refutation)
3.
Can lead to a circular argument:
a. Ex: I agree with weintraub that parents are to blame for childhood obesity because I really
believe he’s right.
4. Argumentum ad hominem: attacking your opponent instead of your opponent’s ideas
a. Ex: why would anyone accept Obama’s plans for job growth? (thesis) he never had any
business experience before he took office (claim)
5. Extension: exaggerating/distorting a person’s argument to make them look bad
a. Ex: do you like carne asada? No? What do you have against Mexicans?
6. Leads to so-called “straw man” (see #15): a person who can’t win an argument any other way might
attempt to paint his opponent as a racist
7. Red herring: intentionally trying to change the subject
a. Ex: "why should I study math? I don't want to be a math teacher. Teachers don’t make any
money and have to babysit kids all day.
b. Daughter: "I'm so hurt that Todd broke up with me, Mom." Mother: "Just think of all the
starving children in Africa, honey. Your problems will seem pretty insignificant then."
8. Appeal to pity: used to avoid having to defend a logical appeal
a. Ex: "ladies and gentlemen of the jury, look at this miserable man, in a wheelchair, unable to use
his legs. Could such a man really be guilty of embezzlement?"
b. Ex: Teacher: “Did you do the homework?”
Student: Well, you see it’s difficult…”
9. Hasty generalization: making a conclusion about a group based on one’s experience with a few
individuals one associates with that group
a. Ex: assuming all Chinese people are disgusting and rude after once sitting next to a few such
individuals on a bus bench in Chinatown
10. Stereotype: judging individuals according to one’s opinion of the group you associate them with
a. Automatically assuming the Chinese person one meets is going to be rude and disgusting
because of perceptions about the Chinese in general
11. Either-or fallacy: failure to consider other alternatives (a situation in which only two alternatives are
considered, when in fact there are additional possibilities)
a. Ex: "it wasn't medicine that cured Mrs. X, so it must have been a miracle."
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English 9A: Argumentative
b. Ex: Either you believe in God, or you go to hell.
12. Oversimplified cause: mistaking a possibly contributory cause for a sufficient one
a. Ex: so-called “suicide rock” should be banned so teens stop taking their own lives.
i. (it’s possible that listening to certain types of music might make a particular person
commit suicide, but it’s obvious that it doesn’t have that effect on everyone)
b. Ex: School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down ever since organized
prayer was banned at public schools. Therefore, prayer should be reintroduced, resulting in
school improvement.
13. Unexamined analogy (false analogy): saying two things are similar when in fact they have significant
differences
a. ex: we ought to install metal detectors at schools because they work in prisons
14. False authority: relying on the opinion of a non-expert.
a. Ex: buying a Toyota because Kobe recommends it
15. Post hoc ergo propter hoc: “after this, therefore because of this” (you assume x caused y just because x
happened first)
a. Ex: "I can't help but think that you are the cause of this problem; we never had any problem
with the furnace until you moved into the apartment."
b. Ex: “I prayed for rain then it rained, therefore prayer works”
i. Think about superstitions
16. Non-sequitur: one’s conclusion does not follow logically from one’s evidence
a. Ex: "o. J. Simpson is in the pro football hall of fame. He couldn't have murdered his wife.
b. Ex: Buddy Burger has the greatest food in town. Buddy Burger was voted #1 by the local paper.
Therefore, Phil, the owner of Buddy Burger, should run for President of the United States.
17. Straw man: what’s created when an argument is grossly (extremely) distorted or misrepresented
a. Ex:
 Bill and Jill are arguing about cleaning out their closets:
 Jill: "We should clean out the closets. They are getting a bit messy."
 Bill: "Why, we just went through those closets last year. Do we have to clean them out
everyday?"
 Jill: "I never said anything about cleaning them out every day. You just want too keep all
your junk forever, which is just ridiculous."
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English 9A: Argumentative
Logical Fallacies Exercise
The following statements are faulty because they are based on one or more logical fallacies. Your job is to identify which
one(s) underlies each.
1.
“Of course he’s guilty. If he were innocent, he would have disproved those charges long ago.”
2. “Careful research shows that many of the most successful people have large vocabularies. This proves that the
way to be successful is to develop a large vocabulary.”
3. “Frank and Jenny aren’t mature enough to get married since they’re just teenagers, and teenagers have the highest
divorce rate of any age group. If teen were more mature, they would be able to make their marriages work.”
4. The president of a university says to professors at a faculty meeting: “we must give student athletes special
consideration in our grading system, or our athletic program will suffer since everyone will be declared ineligible
to play because of their bad grades.”
5. "I think that we should make the academic requirements stricter for students. I recommend that you support this
because we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."
6. “Bill, you’re a superb mechanic; you seem to have a natural talent for detecting anything that’s wrong with a car
and fixing it. Surely, then, you can analyze the rough drafts of your papers and turn them into quality essays.”
7. “Students here are rude. Last night some guys in the room next to mine played their stereo at full blast until two
in the morning, and as I was on my way to class this morning a bicyclist almost ran me down.”
8. (from two people talking about sushi – a Japanese dish consisting of raw fish)
a. “You know, I’ve never really been too crazy about sushi. I don’t like to eat any meat unless it’s cooked.”
b. “You have no appreciation of Japanese culture. I bet you think chopsticks are stupid and that Japanese
music sounds terrible. What do you have against Japan?”
9. “I went to a feminist meeting last night. The speakers were about as ugly a group of women as I’ve ever seen.
No wonder they hate men. A man would have to be pretty desperate to want to have anything to do with them.”
10. “Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.”
11. “It comes down to this: either the U.S. should take control of Iraq in order to get rid of terrorists there or it should
bomb that country to smithereens.”
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English 9A: Argumentative
12. (from a conversation between two business owners) “I don’t know what the colleges are teaching nowadays. I
just received a letter of application from a young man who graduated from the state university last June. It was a
terrible letter – badly written, with basic mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. If that is the kind of
product the university is turning out, it does not deserve the tax support it’s getting.”
13. “The argument that football is a dangerous sport is disproved very simply by showing that the death rate – not
total deaths, but deaths per thousand – among high school, college, and professional players combined is much
less than the death of the total population.”
14. “I dined in a London restaurant last summer, and the fish was so bad I couldn’t eat it. What’s more, a friend of
mine traveled on a British ocean liner, and she said the menus were boring – practically everything was boiled
beef and potatoes. The English seem to have no talent for cooking.”
15. “When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of
gas.”
16. “Bingo should be made illegal since so many elderly people like to play it.”
17. “I decided to buy an Apple computer because Kobe Bryant said in a TV commercial that it has the best graphic
interface hardware.”
18. “He’s obviously lazy. Why else would he be living in such a dump?”
19. “Al Gore warns everybody about global warming, but he lives in a huge house and owns a lot of stock in a big oil
company. In short, he’s a hypocrite. I guess we don’t need to be that concerned about the planet heating up.”
20. “I saw a local band last night that was supposedly old-school ska, but it didn’t even have a horn section – and
everybody was moshin’ instead of skankin’. I guess people around here are pretty clueless about what ska really
is.”
21. “I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I will vouch for him.”
22. “When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.”
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English 9A: Argumentative
Writing an Essay that Evaluates
the Strengths and Weaknesses of Competing Arguments
Steps in the Process
1. Look for the thesis (may be included in the title)
2. Look for supporting arguments
a. It helps if you can recognize different types of appeals
i. Logos (Logical): based on facts (including statistics) and other things that
can be proven
ii. Ethos (ethical/credibility):
1. based on the credibility of the author (or the experts he/she cites)
2. based on agreed-upon values
iii. Pathos (Emotional)
1. based on feelings associated with a particular point of view
3. Look for evidence used for supporting arguments
a. facts, expert opinion, loaded words, etc
4. Look for any counterarguments and attempts to refute them
5. Look for fallacies such as contradictions, ad hominems, red herrings, etc.
6. Organize your findings in an outline or with a double-bubble map
a. Outline
i. arrange your findings according
1. to the type of appeal
2. counterarguments and refutation
3. fallacies
b. Double-Bubble Map
i. Write what the authors have in common in the middle bubbles
(such as similar topics)
ii. write in the outer bubbles what the authors disagree about with respect to each of the
items in the middle bubbles
Annotate everything!
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English 9A: Argumentative
A Weighty Case
INTRODUCTION
1) Crowds of students once streamed toward Smith High School just before the first bell,
headed for their lockers to deposit their bulging backpacks crammed with text books, three-ring
Anecdote
binders, library books, paper, pens, calculators, and perhaps track shoes, lunches, and extra sweat
shirts. However, now they are out of luck. Now there is no rest for the weary and heavy-laden at
Background Information
Smith High School, where lockers have been removed by school administrators because of their
concerns about crowded hallways and tardiness. As a result, Smith High School students carry
Opinion statement
their heavy backpacks all day—an unfortunate situation that will cause other serious problems for
students and should be changed.
2) According to a school announcement, the decision to remove the lockers was prompted
primarily by congested hallways. During every passing period between classes, clumps of students
BODY
Description of causes
filled the halls so that other students could not get to class on time. Tardiness had become a real
issue for the administration and teachers. In addition, Dr. Jones, principal of Smith High School,
believed that locker maintenance had become an enormous effort. He explained in a school
bulletin, “Keeping the lockers in good shape has been an ongoing problem. . . . Besides, when
students go off to college, they will not have lockers, so they might as well learn to be organized
now, instead of later.” The school administration’s answer for the congested hallways, tardiness,
and Dr. Jones’s opinions was to remove the lockers from the high school.
3) Without lockers, students have been forced to carry heavy backpacks all day. This
Effect 1: Logical appeal
situation creates not only an inconvenience, but also a health risk. Two recent studies show that
carrying an overloaded backpack can result in serious muscle strain in a student’s back and
shoulders. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission announced last year that 5,900
Evidence: Case studies
\
Evidence: Statistics
students were treated at various health care sites, emergency rooms, clinics, and doctors’ offices
for injuries caused by backpacks. In addition, 58 percent of the doctors surveyed by the American
Evidence: Facts
Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons reported that they had treated students for pain caused by
carrying heavy backpacks.
4) Alexa Nuñez, a local chiropractor, confirms the findings of the two studies by reporting
an increase in the number of high school students who suffer from back and neck pain caused by
Evidence: Expert
opinion
carrying heavy backpacks. She says, “Students are carrying heavy backpacks slung over one
shoulder and increasing their risk of injury.” Nuñez also says that the American Chiropractic
Evidence: Quotation
Association recommends that a backpack should weigh no more than 10 percent of the student’s
Evidence: Statistics
body weight, or no more than 15 pounds. A backpack full of textbooks and supplies, however,
Ethical appeal
weighs 25 or 30 pounds. Asking students to carry this weight all day means ignoring basic health
guidelines.
5) What happens physically to a student carrying a heavy backpack? First affected is the
spinal column, made up of thirty-three vertebrae, each cushioned by a disk to prevent the vertebrae
Effect 2: Logical appeal
Evidence: Facts
from rubbing against one another. If a student carries a backpack loaded with five or six 1,000-
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English 9A: Argumentative
page books, the force of the weight pulls him backward, forcing the spine into awkward positions
and prohibiting the disks from doing an adequate job of cushioning the vertebrae. Even if the
backpack is carried on both shoulders, the student compensates for the backpack’s weight by
leaning forward to keep from falling backward. To see where he is going and to stay balanced as
he walks, the student lifts his head in an unnatural position. His front neck muscles tighten, also
contributing to muscle strain in his neck and shoulders.
6) In addition, constantly carrying a heavy backpack “flattens the natural curve in the
lower back,” says Jan Richardson, president of the American Physical Therapy Association. Such
Evidence: Expert
opinion
flattening of the lower back results in chronic poor posture and leads to back and neck pain. Even
worse, if the student carries a backpack over only one shoulder, the backpack’s strap digs into his
Evidence: Facts
shoulder, cutting off proper circulation and causing a tingling in his hands and a weakness in his
arms. It may also contribute to a temporary curvature of the spine. Straps that are not adjusted
properly may cause nerve damage in the collarbone area. If students suffer the effects of a heavy
backpack at this young age, consider what happens when they move into the work force.
Currently, working Americans suffer most from back pain, “costing the U. S. economy as much as
Evidence: Quotation
$50 billion annually in lost wages and productivity,” according to one study.
7) To help students manage the restrictions of a lockerless school and a heavy backpack
Effect 3: Ethical appeal
school day, Mrs. Yablonsky, Smithville’s physical education instructor, has taken time out of all
her classes this semester to teach students exercises, specifically designed to help them correct
Evidence: Anecdote
their postures and to counteract the effects of carrying heavy backpacks. In the class I attended last
week, she asked each student to stand before a mirror at home and check to see if one shoulder is
higher than the other. She requested that the students check their postures, their head positions, and
their knees and to look for any slouching or slumping positions. The students have to do 10 or 15
minutes of daily exercises at home—stomach crunches and pushups held for 10 seconds—in order
to develop stronger muscles.
8) She also provided a checklist for choosing a kind of backpack that would best serve
Evidence: Facts
each student’s needs. Backpacks should have two, well-padded straps and a belt strap. Students
should use all three kinds of straps, not just sling their backpacks over their shoulders. Backpacks
should have several compartments to distribute the load, and students should load their backpacks
with the heavier items closer to their backs, not stuffed at the bottom, as students usually do.
Loading backpacks in this manner means that the students’ legs are carrying most of their weight,
not their backs.
9) Mrs. Yablonski demonstrated the correct way to pick up a backpack and then had all of
us in the class practice with our own normally loaded backpacks. We had to face our backpack
Evidence: Facts
before lifting it, bend our knees, and using both hands, check the weight of our backpack by
picking up our backpack a little from the floor to see if it was too heavy. If it felt heavy, we had to
take at least one book from our backpacks. Then from a bent-knee position, we lifted our
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English 9A: Argumentative
backpacks with our legs, not our backs, carefully putting on both straps and attaching the waist
strap. After we had all put on our backpacks the correct way, she encouraged us students to use
this procedure at all times—even in the rush to get from one class to another.
10) As part of the classroom exercises, Mrs. Yablonski instructed the students to first lie
Evidence: Anecdote
flat on the floor, face up, and push their lower backs to the floor several times in a passive stretch.
Standing, the students shrugged their shoulders, counted ten, released, and repeated the shrug for
several times. Still standing, the students reached up as high as they could, one arm at a time, for
several times. Finally, the students extended their arms in front, palms up, stretching outward, and
repeating for several times. Performing all of these exercises made me aware of the importance of
good posture, of the importance of carrying my backpack correctly, and of the dangers associated
with carrying heavy backpacks, as all students at Smithville High School now have to do.
11) Besides the harm caused by carrying these backpacks, there is an additional danger
Effect 4: Emotional
appeal
once students get to class. Because a stuffed backpack cannot fit under a desk, it ends up jamming
the aisle. As a result, students and teachers cannot move freely around the classroom, and they
Evidence: Example
may trip and fall. In case of a fire or even a fire drill, what if a student stumbles on a backpack,
falls, and smashes her head? In the rush to escape, what if no one notices her? Is this a risk that
Emotional appeal
Smith High administrators are willing to take?
12) Because of the hardships imposed on students by the school administration’s decision,
I ask for one of the following actions. First, I urge the school administration to reconsider its
Conclusion
Call to action
decision and restore the lockers for student use at least before school, during lunch, and after
school. If students used their lockers at these times, they would not fill the halls during the passing
Counterclaim addressed
periods, risk being tardy, or jam the aisles. The students would have to carry only half of their
day’s required books and perhaps cut the weight of their backpacks in half.
13) Second, if the school cannot reinstall the lockers for some reason, I request that the
Another call to action
school remedy the situation with a widely discussed and widely used method: Issue two sets of
textbooks—one for the classroom and one for home. Many principals in other areas strongly
Fact
support the dual textbook method. By having several classes share the classroom’s set of books,
Dr. Valdez, of Coronado High School in nearby Granger, estimates that the cost of providing the
Expert Opinion
class set of books is only 10 or 15 percent higher than if the district did not purchase the class set.
14) Everyone is concerned about student health, but the school should not expose students
Commonly held belief
to real health risks in order to prevent possible, but highly unlikely, risks. Removing the lockers
was a mistake because of the problems it has created for the students. To correct its mistake, Smith
Restatement of opinion
High School should reinstall the lockers or issue another set of textbooks for each student.
Final statement
from Expanded Writer’s Model: Persuading with Cause and Effect
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English 9A: Argumentative
Make an outline for “A Weighty Case”
1. Identify the topic (thesis)
2. Identify the main categories
a. Create subcategories
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English 9A: Argumentative
Do Something Good for the Earth
1) Garbage! It smells bad and looks disgusting. Most people think about trash only when
they take it out. People in the United States should be thinking about garbage more, however,
because they throw away 40 percent of all the garbage in the world. The solution to this problem is
recycling. Recycling is the best way to preserve natural resources and to reduce the costs of
Introduction
Attention getter
Background Information
Opinion Statement
processing garbage.
2) By recycling, we can prevent our country from being buried in trash. Much of the
citizens produce yearly, about 42 percent is paper (from trees), 8 percent is glass, 9 percent is metal
Body
Reason 1: Emotional
appeal
(from ore, a natural resource), 7 percent is plastic (from petroleum, a natural resource), 8 percent is
Evidence: Statistics
garbage that is now tossed out could be recycled. Of the 200 million tons of garbage that U.S.
food waste, and 18 percent is yard waste. Government officials estimate that 60 percent of all this
trash could be recycled. Environmentalists suggest a much higher figure—as much as 70 to 90
percent.
3) Recycling more of our garbage can also save precious resources. My grandfather says
the thick forests that once surrounded my hometown have nearly vanished. By recycling
Reason 2: Logical
appeal
Evidence: Anecdote
newspapers, we can rescue trees from destruction. For example, recycling could help save some of
the fifty thousand trees that are sacrificed every week to produce Sunday newspapers in the United
States. We can also save water and energy by recycling. Recycling paper instead of making it from
trees reduces the amount of water used to make the paper by 60 percent and the amount of energy
Evidence: Example
Evidence: Facts and
Statistics
by 70 percent. Aluminum cans show the biggest savings from recycling. To produce a can from
recycled aluminum takes 95 percent less energy than from ore.
Reason 3: Ethical
Appeal
4) Recycling more can reduce the mountains of garbage we produce—and reduce the costs
associated with all the landfills where the garbage is dumped. Garbage does not just disappear after
it is hauled away. It usually goes into landfills—many of which have created toxic pollution
problems and enormous cleanup costs. People often object to recycling by saying that it costs too
Evidence: Facts
Counterclaim addressed
Evidence: expert opinion
much. Brenda Platt of the Institute for Local Self-Reliance says, “Studies have concluded that
recycling costs less than traditional trash collection and disposal when communities achieve high
levels of recycling.” Therefore, people should understand that recycling actually saves money by
reducing waste and by eliminating the costs that go along with solid-waste disposal and landfill
cleanup.
5) Much of what is thrown away now can be recycled. Anyone who loves the earth can
help make it a better place by recycling. Garbage makes our shared home, this planet, less livable
Conclusion
Restated opinion
Summary of reasons
Call to action
for the people of today and for the children of tomorrow. People have caused this garbage crisis,
and only people can solve it. Do you care enough to do your part by recycling?
from A Writer’s Model
12
English 9A: Argumentative
Make an outline for “Do Something Good for the Earth”
1. Identify the topic (thesis)
2. Identify the main categories
a. Create subcategories
13
English 9A: Argumentative
Before You Read
Rising Tides and An Arctic Floe of Climate Questions
Evaluating Arguments:
because I asked my friend Chad, and he
agrees with me.”
Pro and Con

Attacking
the person. A good argument stays
When you read or listen to opposing views on an important
focused
on
an issue and on an opponent’s
issue, how can you decide which side to believe?
argumentnot
on an opponent’s character or
1. Understand the arguments. Begin by making sure
judgment.
that you understand the issue and the opinion, or
“Mr. McAloo, who proposed cutting
claim, presented in each argument. It helps to
after-school sports, is a mean, stingy
paraphrase the arguments, using your own words.
person.”
2. Identify the support start by identifying the logical
2.
How
comprehensive
is the support?
appeals- the reasons why the writer holds that
Does
the
writer
provide
reasons and sufficient
opinion- and the evidence given to back up each
evidence
to
support
every
generalization? An
reason. The evidence may consist of the following
unsupported generalization seriously weakens an
items:
argument.
 Facts (statements that can be verified
3.
Does the writer deal with opposing evidence? To
objectively)
strengthen his or her argument, does the writer
 Statistics (numerical facts)
discuss opposing evidence to anticipate objections?
 Examples
Dealing with the opponent’s viewpoint is important
 Comments from experts
when an issue is a controversial one about which
To what extent has the author also used the
many people have clear pro (for) or con (against)
emotional appeals, such as loaded words and
views.
anecdotes (colorful or emotional stories)?
4. Is the structure effective? A good writer carefully
Who is more persuasive?
structures an argument to be most persuasive.
You can create a chart like the one on the next page to help
Readers generally remember the beginning and the
you evaluate the credibility of each argument. To decide
end of a piece most clearly, so an effective technique
which argument is stronger and why, consider these
is to put the strongest reasons in those positions.
questions:
(Writers also commonly structure arguments using
1. Is the argument logical? Do the reasons make
comparison and contrast and cause and effect.)
sense, and are they relevant to the issue? Learn to
5. What is the author’s intent? Is the writer’s purpose
recognize these common fallacies, or errors in
clear throughout? Often the writer’s goal is just to
logical thinking:
change your thinking, but sometimes it is a call to
 Circular reasoning. Watch out for statements
action, asking you to go out and do something. Are
that look like reasons or conclusions but simply
you being asked to change your behavior in any
restate an author’s opinion.
way? To write a letter? To offer your help? Do there
“After-school sports are essential
seem to be hidden agendas in the writer’s argument?
because they’re a necessary part of
6. What is the tone? An author’s intent directly affects
school activities.”
a work’s tone, a writer’s attitude toward his or her
 False cause and effect. Just because one event
subject or audience. If the intent is to persuade, look
happens after another event, the first event did
for a tone that is serious, calm, and reasonable. You
not necessarily cause the second event. The two
should question the credibility of the argument if the
events may be (and often are) totally unrelated.
author uses a humorous, angry, or highly emotional
“When after-school sports were dropped
tone or if the author exaggerates or ties to make light
at Adams High School, the dropout rate
of various issues.
increased.”
Answering all of these questions will help you evaluate the
 Hasty Generalization. A generalization is a
strengths and weaknesses of opposing argument.
broad statement. An author can’t generalize
about everyone or everything based on one or
Piece 1 Pro
Piece 2 Con
two cases. An author must examine many cases Claim
before he or she can make a valid (true)
Logical appeals
generalization.
Emotional appeals
“Everyone agrees that dropping afterTone
school sports is a bad idea. I know
Author’s intent
Credibility
14
English 9A: Argumentative
Rising Tides
By Bob Herbert
Published on Thursday, February 22, 2001
in the New York Times
The easiest approach for the time being is to pretend it's not happening. It's better for the
nerves in the short run to remain riveted by the Clinton follies or the latest shenanigans
on "Temptation Island" than to acknowledge that the majestic ice cap atop Mount
Kilimanjaro,1 which seemed for so long to be an almost permanent feature of the planet,
will vanish in less than 15 years.
It's February and it's cold in New York, which can help us maintain the fiction that the
planet is not warming at a scary rate. But the snows are disappearing from Kilimanjaro,
and a few years ago scientists were astonished when a mammoth2 fragment of the Larsen
Ice Shelf at the edge of the Antarctic Peninsula 3collapsed like a window shattered by a
rock. The fragment had measured 48 miles by 22 miles and was hundreds of feet thick. It
eventually disappeared.
Many strange things are happening. The seasons are changing, rainstorms are becoming
more intense, sea levels are rising, mighty glaciers are receding, the permafrost (by
definition, the permanently frozen subsoil in the polar regions) is thawing, trees are
flowering earlier, insects are emerging sooner, and so on.
Global warming is not coming, it's here.
There are likely to be some beneficial results in some areas from the warming, such as
longer growing seasons and increased crop yields in certain mid-latitude4 regions, and a
decline in deaths related to extreme cold. But over all, the effects of this sharp and
accelerating and largely artificial warming of the planet including the consequences of
such extreme events as droughts, floods, heat waves, avalanches and tropical storms are
potentially catastrophic.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, in a report released Tuesday in
Geneva5, said, "More people are projected to be harmed than benefited by climate
change, even for global mean temperature increases 6of less than a few degrees
centigrade."
The report also discussed an issue that has profound policy and ethical7 implications. The
worst effects of global warming will probably not be felt by those most responsible for
the pollution of the atmosphere by heat- trapping greenhouse gases. The great industrial
societies, which have benefited so long from the rapacious devouring of resources8 and
the indiscriminate release of pollutants, are also the societies best positioned to cope with
the treacherous forces of global warming.
1
Mount Kilimanjaro: highest mountain in Africa (19,340 ft.) located in Tanzania.
Mammoth: adj.: enormous
3
Antarctic Peninsula: narrow body of land (about 800 miles long) extending from Antarctica toward South
America. The icy continent of Antarctica is a landmass surrounding the South Pole.
4
mid-latitude regions: areas of the world with moderate temperatures.
5
Geneva: city in southwest Switzerland
6
global mean temperature increases: increases in average temperatures all over the world.
7
ethical: adj.: moral; relating to principles of what’s right and just.
8
Rapacious devouring of resources: greedy using up of natural resources.
2
15
Vocabulary
Receding: moving
back; becoming less
Catastrophic:
disastrous
Implications: possible
connections or
consequences.
Indiscriminate:
careless
English 9A: Argumentative
As the panel noted in its report, "The ability of human systems to adapt to and cope with
climate change depends on such factors as wealth, technology, education, information,
skills, infrastructure9, access to resources, and management capabilities."
Developing countries, deficient in those areas, are doomed to suffer disproportionately10
from the warming of the planet. "The effects of climate change," the panel said, "are
expected to be greatest in developing countries in terms of loss of life and relative effects
on investment and the economy."
Despite the powerful and increasing evidence of the role of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases in the warming of the earth, the concentrations of those gases in the
atmosphere are expected to increase, not decrease, over the next several decades.
Government leaders are not responding to the problem with the sense of urgency that is
called for.
Carbon dioxide doesn't just float away in a day or two. It remains in the atmosphere for
more than 100 years. The consequences of our failure to act will last for centuries.
Americans have a special responsibility here. The United States is the mightiest nation on
the planet and the greatest contributor to the industrial component of global warming11.
The nation is wealthy and at peace. A mature approach would require certain sacrifices
designed to provide a better environment for future generations of Americans and a more
equitable relationship with neighbors around the world.
But that's only one approach. Another is to just ignore the problem and continue to feast
like gluttons12 at the table of the world's resources. That will work for awhile. Why not?
All you have to do is convince yourself that damaging the planet is somebody else's
problem.
After reading ‘Rising Tides’ for the first time, write and answer the following questions on your
group work paper:
1. What is the text about?
2. What are three important points or ideas in the text?
3. What is the purpose or intent of the text by Bob Herbert?
9
Infrastructure: basic installations such as roads, schools, power plants, and transportation and
communication systems needed to support a modern, developed society.
10
Disproportionately: not in fair balance; here, to an excessive degree.
11
Industrial component of global warming: the release of pollutants during the manufacturing process,
which increases the overall warming of the earth.
12
Gluttons: persons who greedily eat too much.
16
Vocabulary
Deficient: lacking
Equitable: fair; just
English 9A: Argumentative
An Arctic Floe of Climate Questions
from Newsday, April 18, 2001
Robert Cooke
Recent reports of the North Pole’s demise are, to borrow from Mark Twain,
“exaggerated.”13
Although the blanket of floating ice that usually covers the North Pole was found
last summer to be gone—there was just open water—climate specialists say that's not such
a big deal. As the ice shifts, leads, or channels of water, open up, and ice-free areas called
polynyas form.
Eventually, the ice moves and such gaps close.
But some alarm bells did ring, because there is growing concern that we humans are
fouling things up through our burning of gas, oil, and coal, which releases so-called
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the air. These gases, which trap heat, may be
causing the whole World's temperature to steadily creep higher and higher. And an absence
of ice at the North Pole seemed like one more ominous sign of impending trouble.
Temperature records also show, clearly, that globally temperatures have gone up by
about 3 degrees Fahrenheit in the past 150 years, or since temperatures have been recorded.
And, perhaps coincidentally, the last few years have been the warmest on record,
accentuating14 concerns. One scenario15 suggests that the greatest impact from warming
will be apparent at high latitudes near the poles16.
A recent University of Wisconsin study has shown that in the Northern Hemisphere
17
many of the rivers an lakes that freeze are doing so later- by 8.7 days- than they did more
than a century ago. Also, “ice-out,” or breakup, is occurring about 9.8 days sooner. This
suggests that winters are now a bit shorter.
What people need to know, however, is that the global weather equation is
enormously complex, and no one knows exactly how to work it out. A few years with extrahot summers or an episode of ice shrinking at the poles does not make a disaster. Such things
could be normal fluctuations18 in a very changeable system.
The reason it’s so hard to find answers is, in part, a matter of ignorance. Only in the
past half-century have instruments begun to be set out at sea and on land to monitor19 what’s
actually happening. And only since about 1972 have orbiting satellites20 been able to even
roughly track what’s happening to ice at the poles. Because there is no reliable, long-term
history of climate variability21, we can’t know whether what seems usual now is actually
Recent reports…”exaggerated”: reference to an 1897 cable sent by the American humorist Mark Twain
(1835-1910) to a journalist in response to rumors of Twain’s death, often quoted as “The reports of my death
are greatly exaggerate.”
14
Accentuating: v. used as adj.: heightening; emphasizing.
15
Scenario: n.: outline of events, real or imagined.
16
Poles: n.: regions around the North and South Poles.
17
Northern Hemisphere: the half of the earth north of the equator.
18
Fluctuations: n.: temporary increases and decreases.
19
Monitor: v.: check on; observe.
20
Orbiting satellites: artificial, unmanned spacecraft that circle the earth, transmitting images and data from
space.
21
Variability n.: changeability.
13
17
Vocabulary
Demise: death; end
Ominous: threatening
Impending: about to
happen
Ignorance: lack of
knowledge
English 9A: Argumentative
unusual in global climate. Tests in sediments 22and ice cores show that the world’s
temperature has been higher in the past and, of course, sometimes lower during ice ages.
What recent data have suggested is that ice in the Arctic has been thinning, and the
extent or area of sea ice has shrunk by a measurable degree. On the other hand, there’s
substantial disagreement among scientists there too. Measurements taken by submarines
under the ice are being debated; some experts think the ice has thinned, others think it hasn’t.
In any case, the submarines have been cruising beneath the ice cap for less than 50 years.
Still, “if you look at the records, it seems that since 1972, when satellite observations
began, there has definitely been a significant decrease in sea ice. It’s statistically significant
decrease and that is pretty well accepted,” said climatologist23 Mark Serreze, at the
University of Colorado.
But, he added, “the problem is that when you look at what the sea ice is doing, it’s no
just temperature that governs what the ice is doing. The winds are involved in blowing it
around.” So a large storm is capable of moving the ice, breaking it up and opening a polynya,
an open sea area, at the North Pole.
“These are known to exist, even at the pole,” said George Kukla, a
paleoclimatologist24 at Columbia University’s Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory.
From what I understand, in the past 20 years we’ve been observing a trend in the
thinning of ice and a decrease in the area covered by ice,” Kukla said.
“But according to comparisons, it doesn’t seem to be reaching the situation [seen] in
the 1940s and 1950s, when there are relatively little ice in the area,” Kukla said. So we can’t
say it is something that was unprecedented.”25
Reading Check
1. Name six effects of global warming mentioned in “Rising Tides.”
2. What two opposing approaches to global warming does Herbert say Americans can
take?
3. According to Cooke’s article, what do temperature records show for the “last few
years”?
4. According to Cooke, what do people need to know about the “global weather
equation"?
22
Sediments n.: soil, rock, and other solids deposited by water or wind.
Climatologist: n.: scientist who studies climate and it’s effects.
Paleoclimatologist: n.: scientist who studies earth’s ancient prehistoric climates.
25
Unprecedented: adj.: never happening before.
23
24
18
English 9A: Argumentative
Constructed Response
Write a brief essay in which you evaluate the credibility of the two arguments. What is the author’s intent in
each case? What is each Writer’s opinion, or claim? Is each argument logical and convincing? How strong and
comprehensive are the evidence and other support each writer presents in his argument? Whose view- Herbert’s
or Cooke’s- do you find more credible and persuasive? (A chart like the one below will help you organize your
ideas.)
Herbert
Cooke
Writer’s intent
Writer’s opinion, or claim
Evidence and other support
Credibility of argument
19
English 9A: Argumentative
Interim Assessment
Actually, College Is Very Much Worth It
By Andrew J. Rotherham
Thursday, May 19, 2011
1) Lately it's become fashionable — especially among the highly credentialed — to question whether it's
really "worth it" to go to college. A recent report from the Harvard Graduate School of Education
proposed deemphasizing college as the primary goal of our education system in favor of "multiple
pathways" for students. Earlier this month, New York Magazine devoted almost 4,000 words to profiling
venture capitalists (and college graduates) James Altucher and Peter Thiel and their efforts convince
Americans that they'd be better off skipping college. Thiel is even creating a $100,000 fellowship for
young people who agree to delay going to college in favor of an internship.
2) Make no mistake, there is widespread dissatisfaction with higher education. According to a new survey
released by the Pew Research Center, only 40 percent of Americans felt that colleges provided an
"excellent" or "good" value for the money. At the same time, 86 percent of college graduates still felt the
investment was a good one for them.
3) To understand these competing views, you have to juggle a few different ideas at once. First, there are
plenty of problems with higher education — poor quality, even at brand-name schools, and out-of-control
costs are two of the biggest. College presidents themselves shared some of these concerns and others with
the Pew researchers. Second, it's true: College isn't for everyone. There are plenty of rewarding and
important jobs and careers that do not require college. And due to the sluggish economy, there may in fact
be more graduates than the current job market needs, or a temporary "college bubble." Jobs for recent
grads are harder to find, and salaries are lower, but that won't last forever. And in spite of all of this, the
data make clear that getting a college education is still a good idea — college graduates earn more, and
are more likely to have a job in the first place — and is especially important for some Americans.
4) Anti-college sentiment is nothing new. Mark Twain admonished us not to let schooling interfere with
education, and we've always celebrated the maverick who blazes their own path. These days, it's
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, Microsoft's Bill Gates, or Apple's Steve Jobs — all college dropouts
— who are held up as evidence of why all that time sitting in class is better spent elsewhere. Perhaps, but
it's also worth remembering that their companies are bursting with college graduates. And what about all
the people who didn't finish college and are not at the helm of a wildly successful venture?
20
English 9A: Argumentative
5) Nobody spends a lot of time highlighting their stories, but let's not lose sight of what happens to them.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2010, the median weekly earnings for someone with some
college but no degree were $712, compared to $1038 for a college graduate. That's almost $17,000 over
the course of a year and there is an even bigger divide for those with less education. College graduates are
also more likely to be in jobs with better benefits, further widening the divide. Meanwhile, in 2010, the
unemployment rate was 9.2 percent for those with only some college and more than 10 percent for those
with just a high school degree, but it was 5.4 percent for college graduates. The economic gaps between
college completers and those with less education are getting larger, too.
6) It's also odd to talk down college — which is the most effective social mobility strategy we have — at
the very time Americans are becoming concerned about income inequality. Ron Haskins of the Brookings
Institution found that without a college degree, only 14 percent of Americans from the bottom fifth of
parental income reach the top two-fifths. But if they complete college, 41 percent of this same group can
then expect to make it to the top two-fifths. Haskins' data also shows the extent to which debates like this
are a luxury of the privileged, because their children enjoy much more of a safety net and the risks are
different for them. In other words, children from low-income families gain more by going to college than
children of the wealthy lose by not going.
7) So here's the key takeaway: Education gives you choices. Assuming you don't pile up mountains of
debt that constrain your career options (and that outcome is avoidable) or go to a school where just
fogging a mirror is good enough to get a diploma, there are not a lot of downsides to going to college. The
stories of entrepreneurs who bootstrapped themselves are exciting but most of us are not a Gates or
Zuckerberg. So before heeding the advice of the college naysayers, make sure you understand the stakes
and the odds. Or, here's a good rule of thumb instead: When people who worked hard to achieve
something that has benefitted them start telling you that it's really not all that important or useful —
beware.
Disclosure: I'm a member of the Visiting Committee for the Harvard Graduate School of Education.
Andrew J. Rotherham, who writes the blog Eduwonk, is a co-founder and partner at Bellwether
Education, a nonprofit working to improve educational outcomes for low-income students. School of
Thought, his education column for TIME.com, appears every Thursday.
21
English 9A: Argumentative
Why College Isn't for Everyone
By Richard Vedder
April 09, 2012
1) A person who compares the annual earnings of college and high school graduates would no doubt
conclude that higher education is a good investment—the present value of the college earnings premium
(the better part of $1 million) seemingly far outdistances college costs, yielding a high rate of return. But
for many, attending college is unequivocally not the right decision on purely economic grounds.
2) First of all, college graduates on average are smarter and have better work habits than high school
graduates. Those who graduated from college were better students in high school, for example. Thus, at
least a portion of the earnings premium associated with college has nothing to do with college per se, but
rather with other traits.
3) Second, a goodly proportion (more than 40 percent) of those attending four-year colleges full-time fail
to graduate, even within six years. At some colleges, the dropout rate is strikingly higher. While college
students sometimes still gain marketable skills from partial attendance, others end up taking jobs that are
often given to high school graduates, making little more money but having college debts and some lost
earnings accrued while unsuccessfully pursuing a degree.
4) Third, not everyone is average. A non-swimmer trying to cross a stream that on average is three feet
deep might drown because part of the stream is seven feet in depth. The same kind of thing sometimes
happens to college graduates too entranced by statistics on averages. Earnings vary considerably between
the graduates of different schools, and within schools, earnings differ a great deal between majors.
Accounting, computer science, and engineering majors, for example, almost always make more than
those majoring in education, social work, or ethnic studies.
5) Fourth, the number of new college graduates far exceeds the growth in the number of technical,
managerial, and professional jobs where graduates traditionally have gravitated. As a consequence, we
have a new phenomenon: underemployed college graduates doing jobs historically performed by those
with much less education. We have, for example, more than 100,000 janitors with college degrees, and
16,000 degree-holding parking lot attendants.
6) Does this mean no one should go to college? Of course not. First of all, college is more than training
for a career, and many might benefit from the social and non-purely academic aspects of advanced
schooling, even if the rate of return on college as a financial investment is low. Second, high school
22
English 9A: Argumentative
students with certain attributes are far less likely to drop out of school, and are likely to equal or excel the
average statistics.
7) Students who do well in high school and on college entrance exams are much more likely to graduate.
Those going to private schools may pay more in tuition, but they also have lower dropout rates. Those
majoring in some subjects, such as education or one of the humanities, can sometimes improve their job
situation by double majoring or earning a minor in, say, economics.
8) As a general rule, I would say graduates in the top quarter of their class at a high-quality high school
should go on to a four-year degree program, while those in the bottom quarter of their class at a high
school with a mediocre educational reputation should not (opting instead for alternative methods of
credentialing and training).
9) Those in between should consider perhaps doing a two-year program and then transferring to a fouryear school. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule, but it is important for us to keep in mind that
college is not for everyone.
Richard Vedder directs the Center for College Affordability and Productivity and teaches economics at
Ohio University
23
English 9A: Argumentative
Arguments/Evidence in Support of Paying Kids
to Go to School
 How would it work? (pay for grades? Pay for
attendance? For a week, month, etc?)
 It’s working where it’s been tried
 Experts think it’s a great idea (Who? What is
their title? What do they say?)
 Students think it’s a good idea (do a survey)
 Will cost how much (per day, per week, per
month, per semester, per year, per four
years?)
 How much money per year will be needed?
o What percentage of LAUSD’s budget
does that represent?
What, if any, positive lessons would a student
learn by getting paid?
Arguments/Evidence against Paying Kids to Go to
School
Arguments/Evidence in Support Student IDs that
Track Students
Arguments/Evidence against Student IDs that
Track Students







How would it work (how much do they
recover and for what?)
Evidence that it’s working where it’s been
tried
Evidence that experts think it’s a great idea
(who? What is their title? What do they say?)
Evidence that students/teachers/parents here
think it’s a good idea (do a survey)
How much money could the school possibly
collect at the current rates of truancy? (what
is the current rate of truancy?
What would the money collected be spent on?
Additional arguments/evidence in support of
this idea












Problems where it’s been tried
Experts who think it’s a bad idea (Who?
What is their title? What do they say?)
Students who think it’s a bad idea (do a
survey). What do they say?
How much would schools have to pay
students? (this might be part of the survey)
o How much would this total for a
whole year?
o What percentage of LAUSD’s budget
does that represent?
What, if any, negative lessons would a
student learn by getting paid?
Other negative consequences of adopting this
plan
Where is it being practiced?
Evidence that it isn’t working where it’s
being practiced
Problems in the comparison of these places to
San Fernando
Evidence that experts think it’s a bad idea
(who? What is their title? What do they say?)
Evidence that students/teachers/parents here
think it’s a bad idea (do a survey)
Additional arguments against this idea
24
English 9A: Argumentative
Template for Financial Rewards & Penalties
Use this template to list information you can use in summarizing an idea for dealing with the dropout problem that you
disagree with, as well as for explaining (analyzing) what it is you don’t like about that idea.
Summary: Paying Kids to Go to School

Description of the idea. What does it entail?

Who’s in favor of it?

Where is it done?

What are the reasons in favor of it?

What evidence is there that it works?
Analysis: Paying Kids to Go to School
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
25
English 9A: Argumentative
Summary: Fining Parents whose Kids are Truant

Description of the idea. What does it entail?

Who’s in favor of it?

Where is it done?

What are the reasons in favor of it?

What evidence is there that it works?
Analysis: Fining Parents whose Kids are Truant
I.
II.
III.
26
English 9A: Argumentative
World Café
For the following conversation topics, consider whether you are in favor or against the approaches to dealing with the
dropout problem. You must know (and list) the pros and cons of the ideas for you will have the opportunity to discuss
them. Consider additional ideas people have for dealing with the dropout problem and what strengths and weaknesses of
those ideas might be.
1. Conversation Topic: Bus students from high-achieving to low-achieving schools – and vise versa – in order to
narrow the gap between successful and failing schools. Because schools are largely funded by local property taxes,
this will mean that rich kids will be bused to poor schools and vise versa.
2. Conversation Topic: don’t assume everybody has what it takes to go to college – or necessarily ought to go. Expand
vocational education programs and perhaps even “track” students into them. Vocational Schools are practical
postsecondary education and job training programs that typically offer relatively short, career-focused programs that
quickly prepare graduates for the workforce.
3. Conversation Topic: Pay kids to go to school, to get good grades, etc, and fine the parents of those who are truant or
drop out.
4. Conversation Topic: Stop focusing so much attention on standardized tests.
5. Conversation Topic: Ending social promotion in junior high school as a way of lowering the high school drop-out
rate. Social Promotion is the practice promoting a child to the next grade level regardless of skill mastery in the
belief that it will promote self-esteem
6. Conversation Topic: Homework policy: limit how much it counts toward final grade to 10%
7. Conversation Topic: Make education a bigger part of students’ lives (by increasing the length and number of school
days; by converting public schools into boarding schools)
8. Conversation Topic: No more co-educational schools. Place boys and girls in separate schools.
9. Conversation Topic: End free public education – make people pay for it from now on
10. Conversation Topic: Installing cameras in the classroom as a way of improving the quality of teaching and thereby
keeping students from being bored – supposedly a major reason kids drop out.
11. Conversation Topic: Start middle and high schools no earlier than 10 am.
You must propose a solution to the dropout problem, which solution do you believe will be most effective? Why? Would
you change anything about this proposal (to make it better)?
27
English 9A: Argumentative
Sample Outline for Proposals Section of Dropout Position Paper
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Transition Sentence (makes reference to conclusion of Summary & Analysis section and points toward
presentation of a better proposal)
Definition of Parameters: can’t solve the problem entirely, especially for nation or even California: best to
focus on improving situation at SFHS
Identification of some of the most commonly stated reasons for students dropping out
a. not being promoted to 10th grade on time is the biggest risk factor
i. says who:
1. http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/nhsc_approachestodropoutprevention.pdf citing
Neild and Balfanz
2. The ninth grade is often considered a critical make-it or break-it year when students get
on- or off-track to succeed in high school. More students fail ninth grade than any other
high school grade, and a disproportionate number of students who are held back in ninth
grade subsequently drop out (Herlihy, 2007).
3. one-third of dropouts exhibit no warning signs in eighth grade but have problems in ninth
grade.
b. Inadequate Parental Involvement
1. says who: American Psychological Association 2011: lack of parental involvement
identified as one of four prominent risk factors in determining likelihood of dropping out
Facing the School Dropout Dilemma http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/schooldropout-prevention.aspx
Proposal Addressing Reason One: presentation to 8th graders
a. what it entails
i. teams of 9th grade presenters visiting 8th grade classrooms at SFHS “feeder schools” (Maclay,
SFM, and Pacoima) to expound upon
1. how serious the dropout problem is at SFHS
a. in terms of how many kids drop out
b. in terms of the negative consequences of dropping out
2. what contributes to 9th graders deciding to drop out
a. differences between HS and MS
i. no social promotion
ii. classes are more challenging
iii. lack of engagement
3. how 8th graders can avoid getting in trouble in 9th grade themselves
a. by taking advantage of various programs at SFHS
i. after-school tutoring
ii. in-home tutoring
b. by hooking up with a mentor
c. by taking college classes (if boredom’s an issue)
ii. getting approval from school administrators and teachers
1. how will that be handled
iii. preparing engaging presentations
1. PowerPoint and/or Video
iv. arranging for transportation
b. reasons in favor of this approach
i. inexpensive (other than transportation costs)
ii. simplicity
1. paper’s been written: just need a PowerPoint
iii. Logically more likely to succeed
1. kids will listen to peers more than to adults
a. peer mentoring, of which this is a type, has been proven successful elsewhere
i. A Win-Win Peer Mentoring and Tutoring Program: A Collaborative
Model Susan Dennison The Journal of Primary Prevention Volume 20,
Number 3, 161-174, DOI: 10.1023/A:1021385817106
28
English 9A: Argumentative
V.
iv. talking to students BEFORE they come to high school is an idea supported by experts
1. To be most effective in preventing dropout, school systems should focus dropout
prevention efforts in the beginning of the middle grades.
http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/nhsc_approachestodropoutprevention.pdf
2. eighth-to-ninth grade transition programs have proven successful.
http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/nhsc_approachestodropoutprevention.pdf
v. provides additional benefits
1. gives 8th grade teachers a better idea of what’s expected of 9th graders (facilitates vertical
integration of the curricula)
2. might satisfy service-learning requirement for high school graduation
3. an excellent way to enhance the quality of one’s college- or job application
Proposal Addressing Reason Two: public service announcements targeting local parents
a. what it entails
i. persuading local radio & television station owners and outdoor advertising executives to regularly
air public service announcements reminding parents how important it is that their kids finish high
school
1. letters (including to the LA Times if we don’t here back from them)
2. working with stations to compose and record a script
b. reasons in favor of this approach
i. cost
1. zero for schools and students
2. tax write-off for station owners and advertisers
3. fulfills regulatory requirement station owners assume in exchange to use of public
airwaves
ii. more likely to succeed
1. Parent Center & SLC parent meetings routinely get only a handful of parents to come –
probably because they are working or traveling to and from work
2. Broadcast message can be heard at work, during commutes, etc
iii. logical
1. clear from films like “The Lottery” and “Waiting for Superman” that parental
involvement is key to a child’s educational success.
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English 9A: Argumentative
Sample Proposals Section on High School Dropout Problem
Given the many problems inherent in the financial-rewards-and-penalties approach, it’s clear that a
much different way of dealing with the drop-out crisis must be found. While it would be great if there were one
idea that would succeed in addressing the problem as it exists across the nation, the length of this paper limits
what it can propose to dealing with the situation facing the San Fernando/Pacoima community.
It only makes sense that whatever idea is put forward must address the fundamental reasons students
make the decision to abandon their education. According to a number of experts, a student’s failure to graduate
from 9th grade with his or her peers is a major factor in the decision to drop out. (Neild and Balfanz; Herlihy)
This was confirmed by Ms. Garcia, the Dropout Coordinator for the Los Angeles Unified School District, who
was interviewed by our class in December, 2011. A survey of nearly three hundred students, teachers, and
adults in the community suggested some reasons as to why this might be the case. These include a sense of
hopelessness once a student who’s supposed to be in the tenth grade realizes how much make-up work is
required to earn a promotion; a sense that graduating from high school won’t make that much difference in
determining whether a student will succeed or not; and the temptation or perceived need to work.
A second oft-stated reason is a lack of parental support, which the American Psychological Association
regards as “one of the four prominent risk factors determining the likelihood of dropping out. (2011) This
opinion was also verified by Ms. Garcia when she visited with our class, and is further supported by the
research we conducted in our survey, wherein approximately 30% of respondents agreed that the failure of
parents to involve themselves in the educational experience of their children is a major problem in this
community.
An idea for dealing with the first cause identified above would be for SFHS students to visit middleschool classrooms to talk to students there about how serious the drop-out problem is at our school. This means
that members of our class would be visiting the campuses of Maclay, San Fernando Middle, and Pacoima
middle schools to share information we have gathered about how many SFHS students drop out and what the
negative consequences are of doing so. We would also discuss the reasons we’ve become familiar with for why
so many students here don’t make it, such as the fact that there is no social promotion; the likelihood that they’ll
find their classes to be much more challenging; and the possibility that they won’t feel a sense of belonging.
We would follow this discussion up with advice about how these middleschoolers might more successfully
negotiate their way through the many challenges and temptations they’ll face in high school. This would
include mention of such things as after-school tutoring; clubs and organizations; the Project Grad program,
Impact, our Teen Clinic, and the existence of college classes.
In order to execute our plan, it will be necessary to obtain permission from the administrators at all of
the schools involved, as well as from the teachers whose classrooms will be impacted. This can be
accomplished by providing all of the parties concerned with a copy of our position paper, as well as an outline
of what we intend to discuss, along with a formal letter of request. The likelihood of succeeding in this
endeavor is enhanced by the fact that many of us are on good terms with some of the individuals we need
permission from. In addition, we will need to prepare a PowerPoint presentation and a short video, as well as
arrange for transportation.
This proposal has a number of positive aspects to recommend it. First, its only cost is that of
transporting the presenters by school bus, which would be approximately _____. It is also a very simple plan to
put into effect, inasmuch as we’ve already thoroughly researched this topic and have composed a position paper
on it. It is a logical approach, moreover, since there is ample evidence supporting the idea that teens are more
apt to take advice from their peers than from adults. Indeed, peer mentoring, of which this is certainly an
30
English 9A: Argumentative
example, is touted in such academic publications as The Journal of Primary Prevention. (Dennison) Experts
also support the idea of speaking with at-risk students well before they begin attending high school.
(betterhighschools.org) This proposal has additional benefits not directly related to the drop-out problem as
well. These would include providing middle-school teachers with a better idea of what sorts of things are
required of high school students; satisfying service-learning requirements for graduation; and enhancing the
quality of our college- and employment applications.
With respect to the lack of parental support, we propose to invite local radio and television station
owners and managers – as well as outdoor advertizing companies – to broadcast public service announcements
urging parents in our community to get more involved in the education of their children: particularly to do all
they can to ensure that their children graduate from high school. This will necessitate write formal letters of
request, as well as notifying local newspapers of our intention so that they can help us pressure these parties into
helping us put our plan in action. Once we succeed in establishing a partnership, we hope to be integrally
involved in composing the scripts that will be used – and perhaps even taking part in their recording and
production.
As bold as this approach may seem, its cost to all parties is minimal. We won’t have to pay anything to
participate in this approach and station owners and advertisers can realize a substantial tax benefit. These
parties will also have the opportunity to satisfy the requirement that they engage in public service in exchange
for being able to use the public airwaves. Another feature that makes this plan attractive is that it is more likely
to succeed than current methods of communicating with parents. Although SFHS has a Parent Center which
regularly sponsors events intended to facilitate communication with parents, their success in getting parents to
participate is notoriously abysmal. SLC events have been spectacularly unsuccessful as well. The reason most
often given for why parents don’t attend these events is that they are working or commuting to or from work. If
the message that we want to communicate to them is broadcast over the airwaves or posted on local billboards,
these reasons will likely not be nearly as much of an impediment.
31
English 9A: Argumentative
Writing a Position Paper Introduction
1. a lead-in (hook): something that introduces the topic of your paper in a general way
 Open with an unusual detail or statistic, startling or striking fact from a credible source.
 Open with a strong statement.
 Open with a quotation.
 Open with an anecdote
 Open with an engaging question.
 Open with an exaggeration or outrageous statement.
2. Thesis Statement of intent and opinion: in one or more sentences, you need to give the reader an
overview of the paper. The way to handle this is to provide a brief summary of each section of your paper in
the order these sections appear. In other words, briefly summarize what you do in the Description section;
then briefly summarize what you do in the Summary & Analysis section; and, finally, briefly summarize
what you do in the Proposals section.
Remember, a big part of successfully writing academic essays is to satisfy your reader’s expectations. By
summarizing the parts of the paper in the order they occur, your reader will be able to follow your paper’s
progression as he/she moves through it.
Your Introduction should also:
 Set the tone: for most academic essays, you should impress your reader that you’re very serious
about your topic
 Make someone want to read your essay: a lot of this has to do with how clear your writing is in this
crucial paragraph.
Remember you want to make a good first impression on your audience, which is most often going to be
your professor, the person who gives you your grade!
Depending upon your topic, and how much of it refers to things you’ve experienced directly, you may be
expected to avoid the use of “I” “aka 1st person singular pronoun”). Here are some suggestions for how to
do this:
 use conventional expressions, such as
 this paper, this essay (This paper will demonstrate that X is not a good idea.)
 what follows (What follows is a description of how serious this problem is.)
 use of the passive voice (Instead of “I will present an idea which I think is better,” (active voice),
write “Finally, a proposal which this paper believes is preferable will be presented”)
Sample Introduction:
For the past five years or so, America’s economy has suffered a serious decline. During this time of
high unemployment and prolonged joblessness, even those who have a high school degree have found it
difficult to find steady work. For those who lack this minimum educational requirement, securing employment
is much more of a challenge. Ironically, at a time when the percentage of American youth who graduate high
school should be increasing, it is actually moving in the opposite direction, especially in California. Many ideas
have been put forward to reverse the downward trend, but at least two of them – paying youths to go to school
and fining the parents of those who don’t – would likely only compound the problem. Two approaches with a
much greater chance of succeeding, at least with respect to the students in danger of dropping out of San
Fernando High School, would be to partner with local radio and television station owners in the broadcast of
public service announcements and to facilitate meetings between successful high school seniors and their
middle school counterparts.
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English 9A: Argumentative
Writing a Conclusion
Just as you want to make a good first impression with your introduction, you want to leave a good lasting
impression with your conclusion. This is especially significant when you consider that people supposedly
remember most what they read (or hear) last.
Start with transition phrase that reflects the rhetorical purpose of your essay. A couple conventional expressions
are:
 Hopefully, this essay has succeeded in demonstrating that…
 The preceding discussion has attempted to
In restating your main ideas, reverse the order you presented them in. in other words, proposal first, summary &
analysis second, and description last. This way the reader will remember most how serious the problem is that
you’ve chosen to write about. That will set things up for your “Call to Action”. Different ways to motivate the
reader to want to do something to support your cause include:
 A reminder of his/her civic duty and/or humanitarian responsibilities (i.e. “People have caused this
garbage crisis, and only people can solve it. Do you care enough to do your part by recycling?” Do
Something Good for the Earth)
 A prediction that things will get worse if nothing’s done (i.e. Rising Tides)
 A warning about how the reader might be personally affected if nothing’s done (i.e. “next time it could
be you”)
 An attempt to make the reader feel guilty if they do nothing (ex, “those who do nothing to solve the
problem of teen suicide must be seen as responsible in part of these tragic deaths.” Teen Suicide)
Here’s how a scratch outline evolved into a conclusion paragraph on gang violence
1. Proposals: La needs more cops
2. Summary and Analysis: Legalizing drugs to stop gang violence is a stupid idea
3. Description: the problem of gang violence is really serious
4. Call to Action
Hopefully, this essay has made it clear that Los Angeles is in dire need of more police if it wants to get
serious about tackling the problem of gang violence. Instead of experimenting with a proposal like legalizing
drugs, which is only based on theory, we should move rapidly to do here what has succeeded so well elsewhere
and hire more police. The seriousness of the issue demands that we stop debate and get to work. To do anything
less would be to aid those who are perpetuating the violence.
33
English 9A: Argumentative
Writing a Conclusion
from a position paper on animal abuse in so-called “factory farms”
Hopefully, this essay has succeeded in showing that applying political and economic pressure on factory farms
and educating people about the torment animals endure on their way to our tables will lead to better treatment of our
nation’s livestock. (refers to Proposals section) Hopefully, it has also been demonstrated that adopting peaceful
approaches like these are preferable to animal rights activists attempting to avenge the abuses suffered by animals by
breaking the law. (refers to Summary & Analysis section) This should not be construed as suggesting that the need for
action is not urgent, however. (begins call to action) As the world’s human population continues to dramatically increase,
many more animals are vulnerable to mistreatment. (supports call to action) Those who are sympathetic to the plight of
livestock, (refers to Description section) yet resist this and similar calls to engage in efforts to protect them, are only
slightly less guilty of abusing these creatures than the owners of factory farms. (supports call to action by referring to
Description section) They may not have the animals’ blood on their plates, but they have it on their hands. (ends with a
“bang”, since people often remember most what they hear or read last)
Scratch outline for conclusion of paper on the nation’s illiteracy problem




Cameras in the classroom is a great idea (from Proposals section)
School uniforms won’t solve the problem (from Summary & Analysis section)
Need to do something, cuz illiteracy’s a huge problem (from Description section)
US = democracy & democracies need informed electorate to survive (“bang”)
Hopefully, this essay has succeeded in demonstrating that installing cameras in the classroom will lead to
improved teacher performance and thus better educated students. As has also been shown, the ideas of extending the
school day and making students wear school uniforms will not achieve the desired effect of improving student literacy.
Failing to immediately adopt a viable option for dealing with the increasingly serious problem of illiteracy will have truly
grim consequences for the country. If it is true that the survival of a democracy depends on an informed electorate, then
we should care passionately about the problem of illiteracy as it involves nothing less than the continued existence of what
we all want to be a prosperous and healthy United States.
34
English 9A: Argumentative
Making the Grade:
Ideas for Increasing the On-Time Graduation Rate at San Fernando High School
Frequently constructed of “catchy” and
informative” components separated with
a colon. Often uses alliteration. Should
be in bold.
Title should reflect your rhetorical
purpose. Title should indicate the essays
primary purpose and describe or explain.
Capitalize the first & last word and all
words except articles (a, an, the),
prepositions (in, at, under, etc), and
coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but)
Name Last Name
San Fernando High School
Date: Month Day, Year
35
English 9A: Argumentative
Sample SFHS Position Paper Titles/Sub-Headings
Driving down the Drive-By’s:
Toward Establishing a Greater Police Presence in the Northeast San Fernando Valley as a Means of Addressing
the Problem of Gang Violence There
Before Exposition Section: Horror in the ‘Hood (Suggests that this section will describe gang-related troubles
in the community)
Before Summary & Analysis Section: The Wrong Prescription (indicates that an idea for solving the problem
will be criticized; in this case, it’s the idea that legalizing drugs will reduce the problem of gang violence (hence
the word “prescription”)
Before Proposals Section: Chief in Charge (reflects the main recommendation of giving the LAPD police chief
what he says he needs to fight the gang problem: more cops)
Filling the Cracks: The Problem of Teen Suicide
and Recommendations for Its Prevention
Tough Times for Teens
Striking the Wrong Chord
An Approach That Is More in Tune
Other Dos!
Your paper must have page numbers. Here is how to do it on Microsoft Word:
 Insert
 Page Number
 Top of Page
 Upper Right Hand Corner
o Double Click to Add LAST NAME
Akopyan 12
Works Cited Page
Author (Last, First). “Article Title.” Website/Book Title. Version: date/volume/issue. Publisher Company:
City/State. Text Type. Date Accessed.
Times New Roman
12 Point Font
Double Spaced
36