Exercise A-1
1. Inconsistency ad hominem
2. Begging the question
3. Perfectionist fallacy
4. Inconsistency ad hominem
5. False dilemma
6. Poisoning the well
7. Straw man
8. False dilemma (Perfectionist fallacy)
9. Inconsistency ad hominem
10. Genetic fallacy
11. Inconsistency ad hominem
12. Begging the question
13. Line drawing fallacy
14. Genetic fallacy
15. Circumstantial ad hominem
16. The Sacramento Bee attributes to the initiative proponents an attack/circumstantial ad hominem .
17. Genetic fallacy
18. Begging the question
19. Slippery slope
20. Straw man
21. USA Today attributes an attack ad hominem to the American Medical Association.
22. Slippery slope
23. (Fallacious) appeal to authority
24. Begging the question
25. Inconsistency ad hominem
26. Argument from outrage
27. False dilemma
28. Inconsistency ad hominem
29. Straw man
30. Misplacing the burden of proof
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31. Begging the question
32. Inconsistency ad hominem
33. False dilemma
34. Misplacing the burden of proof
35. Begging the question
36. False dilemma
37. Begging the question
38. Straw man
39. False dilemma
40. Inconsistency ad hominem
41. False dilemma
42. False dilemma
43. False dilemma
44. Straw man
45. Argument from outrage; appeal to pity; inconsistency ad hominem
46. False dilemma
47. Misplacing the burden of proof
48. Straw man
49. Inconsistency ad hominem
50. False dilemma (Perfectionist fallacy)
51. No fallacy
52. False dilemma (Perfectionist fallacy)
53. Slippery slope
54. Irrelevant conclusion (Two wrongs make a right); also possible: ad hominem (genetic fallacy)
55. Begging the question
56. Misplaced burden of proof, twice—Moe’s second and third statements
57. Ad hominem
58. Slippery slope
59. False dilemma (third sources of energy, or a combination of sources are not considered)
60. False dilemma (in the last paragraph); there are shades of slippery slope earlier
61. Ad hominem
62. Burden of proof (third sentence)
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63. Ad hominem (Don Regan’s motives are irrelevant to whether what he reported is true.)
64. Straw man
65. Scare tactics
66. Irrelevant conclusion; appeal to pity. Irrelevant to the quality of the product. Compare with the next exercise.
67. No fallacy. This passage was designed to attack the company, not its product. Wages are relevant here. Compare with previous exercise.
68. Irrelevant conclusion, at least with respect to the shoes
69. Begging the question
70. Slippery slope
71. False dilemma, the way it’s stated; slippery slope also works
72. False dilemma
73. Irrelevant conclusion; the red herring is the question of what’s “natural”
74. False dilemma (Line-drawing fallacy)
75. Ad hominem (Genetic fallacy); a bit of appeal to outrage too
76. False dilemma
77. No fallacy
78. False dilemma (Line-drawing fallacy)
79. False dilemma (Charlie made this one easy.)
80. Straw man
81. Ad hominem
82. No fallacy
83. False dilemma (Perfectionist fallacy)
84. Slippery slope
85. Irrelevant conclusion (Michael is addressing an entirely different issue.)
86. Misplaced burden of proof
87. Appeal to emotion (Apple polishing)
88. No fallacy. The appeal is to a belief in science,, which is a reasonable one. There is probably some hyperbole here, though. It is likely that not all creationist views would entail giving up “half of what we know as science.”
89. If Ben’s remark is a comment on Kristi’s, it’s a generic red herring. Otherwise, it’s just a remark.
90. Irrelevant conclusion, generic red herring; that he was criticized is irrelevant to whether he was a good chair
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91. Appeal to both pity and outrage
92. False dilemma (unless all non-Christians are sinners!)
93. Irrelevant conclusion; the criticism of HMOs does not much relate to the proposal’s effect on their cost of doing business
94. Irrelevant conclusion; the answer never approaches the question
95. Ad hominem (Poisoning the well)
96. False dilemma (Perfectionist fallacy)
97. Slippery slope
98. Ad hominem
99. False dilemma (Perfectionist fallacy)
Exercise A-2
1. d
2. d
3. c
4. b
5. a. Notice that the question is begged by means of a loaded question—a common technique.
6. e
7. a
8. e
9. d
10. a.
11. c
12. b
13. d
14. c (to the extent this is anything beyond a simple complaint)
15. b
16. e
17. b
18. a
19. a
20. c
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21. b
22. e
23. b
24. d
25. b
26. b
27. a
28. d
29. a
30. a
Exercise A-3
1. Not very
2. It tells you that it probably tastes good; most toothpaste buyers have no idea of any other feature of the toothpaste they use (not counting what it says on the tube, which could be misleading). They are going by the same advertisements you see in print and on television.
3. Very relevant. A popular automobile may have continued support from its maker, and this can be advantageous to the owner of such a car.
4. If you like movies that are popular, generally, then it should influence you a bit. But what kind of movie it is should be more important. Your own experience with blockbuster movies, and with popular taste in general, should guide you here.
5. It probably would influence your decision; but we think it’s far better to make up your own mind independently.
6. It probably will influence what you say about your friends’ party. And that is not all bad.
There is no point in offending your friends if there’s no chance of influencing their views.
If you think you can influence their views without being offensive, then by all means you should speak up.
7. It is a relevant consideration if you want to be polite or if you want to criticize the novel when you speak to your friend. But note that it would not be relevant if the issue had been whether the novel was well-written.
8. Not at all
9. Whether she will do a good job? Not at all relevant. Whether you should vote for her?
Quite relevant—she’s your mother, after all!
10. Relevant, especially if you have reason to think that Ebert likes or dislikes the same kinds of movies you do, or if you have opposite views (then you can avoid movies he recommends).
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Exercise A-4
This exercise depends on class discussion.
Exercise A-5
Clyde begins with wishful thinking, to which Maude responds with ridicule. Next, Clyde’s remark about living in a shack is a straw man and part of a false dilemma: they aren’t limited to living in a shack or buying this expensive house. Maude presents a circumstantial ad hominem in her next remark, followed by Clyde with an inconsistency ad hominem in his “upscale” remark.
We don’t think Maude’s claim about not being able to heat it is real hyperbole, but we wouldn’t argue about it either.
Clyde puts up a line-drawing fallacy with his escalating monthly payment remarks, then begs the question with his “it’s within our means” claim. Saying that it will be a great investment because we are bound to make money on it is offering the selfsame conclusion as evidence of itself
(begging the question). This is followed by Clyde’s misplaced burden of proof and Maude’s slippery slope.
Exercise A-6
Just a few comments here:
In (1), “Always been this way” is a form of appeal to popularity—actually, an appeal to tradition, a popular tradition. (2) is a slippery slope/scare tactics. (3) is scare tactics. (4) is an appeal to pity. (5) ends with a false dilemma. (6) misplaces the burden of proof. (7) is an inconsistency ad hominem; (8) takes the discussion off on an irrelevant tangent; it is a red herring. (9) doesn’t address the question. In (10) there’s the dysphemism “narc” and also a false assumption; it is in addition entirely off the topic. (11) is a very nice case of perfectionist fallacy. (12) is reasonable enough to give comfort, but (13) is the fallacy of accident. (14) states a truth and a nonsequitur; and we think we could sell (15) as a bumper sticker.
Exercise A-7
1. Increasing the diversity of weather conditions in the previous rides makes it more likely that this year’s weather will be similar to the weather on an occasion on which Cliff did not finish the race. This should make Cliff even more confident that this year’s result will be the same as in previous years.
2. This supposition increases the similarities between this year’s ride and the previous rides.
Cliff should be even more confident that this year’s result will duplicate the result of previous years.
3. This supposition introduces a difference between this year’s ride and the previous rides. It means Cliff should be less confident this year’s result will be the same as in previous years.
4. If Cliff ends up with a different bike, it would introduce a difference between the analogues, which should make him less confident this year’s result will be the same as in
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previous years. If he ends up with the same bike, he should be more confident that this year’s result will be the same as in previous years.
5. The supposition should increase Cliff’s confidence this year’s result will be the same as in previous years, because it introduces an additional similarity between the analogues.
6. The supposition should make Cliff less confident this year will be the same as previous years, because it introduces a difference between the analogues.
7. This supposition should make Cliff less confident this year will be the same as previous years, because it introduces a difference between the analogues.
8. The new supposition mentioned in 7 introduces a difference between the analogues, meaning that Cliff should be less confident this year will have the same result as previous years. He might also arrive at that finding by considering his past experience outside the
Fourth of July ride. If his past experience is that he can go father on flat ground, he could reason analogically that he will be more apt to finish this year’s ride if it too is on flat ground.
9. The new supposition increases the diversification of the past years’ rides, making it more likely this year’s ride will replicate an earlier condition in which Cliff didn’t finish. This should increase his confidence this year’s result will be the same as in previous years.
Exercise A-8
1. This is a leading question. It portrays Republicans as being against environmental safeguards, and promotes opposition to Republican plans.
2. The question is loaded; it assumes without argument that BP was slow to respond.
3. Another leading question. It insinuates that immigration laws aren’t being vigorously enforced, thereby promoting an attitude sympathetic to more vigorous enforcement.
4. The question suggests that the lawsuits are without merit and run up health care costs.
5. The question promotes sentiment against health care reform, by suggesting that it is unpopular.
6. Question treats government spending as excessive thereby promoting the second option.
7. Question offers a false alternative and promotes sympathy for raising taxes.
8. Question is worded so as to make a “yes” response all but impossible.
9. Question offers a false alternative and is worded so as to promote the first option.
10. Question promotes a response favoring background checks, by calling them reasonable while referring to assault weapons as deadly.
11. Question presumes serious problems in the law, including excessive costs in answer b.
Indeed, the entire premise of the question and answers is that the act is excessively expensive, something the evidence does not support.
Exercise A-9
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Multiple answers to these questions are possible, because there are many ways of expressing
“confidence level” and “error margin” in English. Here are suggestions for appropriate phrasing.
1. Therefore, it isn’t unusual for Miami University students to be members of Webkinz.
2. Therefore, it isn’t impossible that a majority of Miami University students are members of
Webkinz.
3. Therefore, he might well like the next business course he takes at Foothill.
4. Therefore, he shouldn’t be too surprised if he likes some of his future business professors but not others.
5. Therefore it might not be too surprising if his brother Sergio likes most of his Foothill business courses, too.
6. Therefore, it wouldn’t be terribly surprising if only a minority of York’s 9A.M. class watch
PBS.
7. Therefore, it wouldn’t be terribly surprising if only a minority of York students watch PBS.
8. Therefore he could have lied about Jennifer Flowers as well.
9. Therefore, don’t be too surprised if a majority of Target customers own cars.
10. It isn’t unlikely, therefore, that she likes Christmas, too.
Exercise A-10
1. In order of decreasing confidence level: d, f, b, c, e, a.
2. In order of decreasing confidence level: a = e, d, b, c
3. In order of decreasing confidence level: e, f, c, a, g, b, d
Exercise A-11
1. Confidence-level indication: “100%.” Too high.
2. Confidence-level indication: “There is an excellent chance.” This is appropriate.
3. Confidence-level indication: “It could well be.” This is appropriate.
4. Confidence level: “There is some chance.” Too low; this is overly cautious.
5. Confidence-level indication: “It almost certainly will be.” This is much too high.
Exercise A-12
1. There are no difficulties involved in identifying what is in the sample or the population, and the speaker will know well enough when a test has the attribute of interest.
2. The sample and population both are clear. The attribute of interest isn’t nearly as clear.
3. The sample and population are both vague, as is the attribute of interest.
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4. The sample is the speaker’s husband; the population is men. Both of these are clear.
However, the attribute of interest, “cannot tolerate stress” is excessively vague.
5. The sample is clear, the population only slightly less so. But the attribute of interest is vague. However, you might view the passage as a prediction that the listener will agree that the next movie he or she sees is “too graphic.” Viewed in this light, the passage is not vague.
6. The sample is clear, as is the population. However, what the attribute of interest is, is anybody’s guess.
7. The sample consists of the speaker’s past visit or visits to Minneapolis in the summer; the population is summertime visits to Minneapolis. Neither of these is vague. The attribute of interest, while subjective, isn’t vague.
8. The sample is clear. The population is vague. The attribute of interest is subjective, but the listener will know whether something is too expensive for him or her.
9. The sample and population are clear; the attribute is vague.
10. The sample and population are clear; and whether someone possesses the attribute of interest is also easily determined.
11. The sample—introverts studied by researchers—is vague; the population is vague as well.
The attribute of interest is slightly less vague, but not by much.
12. The sample, population, and attribute of interest all are very vague.
13. The sample and population are fairly clear; the attribute of interest is quite vague.
14. The sample is clear enough; the population is clearly defined; the attribute of interest is arguable.
Exercise A-13
1. A sampling frame for “Denver residents” might be people who reside at an address within the Denver city limits. A sampling frame for people who “watch The Bachelorette” might be people who say they “regularly watch The Bachelorette.”
2. A sampling frame for “religious people in your city” might be people in your city who say they attend church at least once a week. A sampling frame for “conservative” might be people who identify themselves as conservatives.
3. A sampling frame for “blondes at your university” might be enrolled students whose driver license states “blond” as their hair color.
4. A sampling frame for “country songs” might be songs listed on the Billboard “Country
Songs” chart for such and such a date. A sampling frame for songs “about lost love” might be songs that a specified individual, such as a country recording artist, thinks are about lost love.
5. A sampling frame of “plumbers in Chicago” might be licensed plumbers who reside in that city. A sampling frame for “play the Illinois Lotto” might be people who have purchased one or more Lotto tickets for five of the last six weeks.
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6. A sampling frame for “people with long necks” might be people who observers agree have long necks. A sampling frame for “good listener” might be people who score above the mean on a test that asks people to identify the content of a spoken passage.
Exercise A-14
Items 1, 3, 4, 7, and 11 are arguments.
Items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12 are explanations.
Exercise A-15
1.
Presumed cause: fouled spark plug
Presumed effect: engine miss
Testable? Yes
2.
Presumed cause: = Antonio’s throwing away the chain letter
Presumed effect = Antonio’s having a run of bad luck
Testable? No, the attribute "having a run of bad luck" is hopelessly vague.
3.
Presumed cause: = Petunia’s not sleeping well
Presumed effect = Petunia’s being grouchy
Testable? Not easily. Over a period of time one might perceive whether there is a
correlation between Petunia or others thinking she is grouchy and her thinking she did not
sleep well.
4.
Presumed cause: = Divine intervention
Presumed effect = Cancer being cured
Testable? No, due to vagueness; no way to tell when intervention is or isn’t present
5.
Presumed cause: = CIA’s not wanting the agents to be identified
Presumed effect = CIA’s destroying the files
Testable? Yes
6.
Presumed cause: = having someone praying for you
Presumed effect = having your cancer cured
Testable? No, due to vagueness; in addition, there is no way of ensuring that a person is not being prayed for by someone
7.
Presumed cause: = having your mother pray for you
Presumed effect = having good luck
Testable? No, not in the absence of a definition of good luck; no way to tell what counts as having or not having good luck
8.
Presumed cause: = eating oatmeal
Presumed effect = having reduced cholesterol
Testable? Yes
9.
Presumed cause: = being susceptible to flu
Presumed effect = getting flu
Testable? No, due to circularity
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10.
Presumed cause: = Roddick’s being unable to return Federer’s serve
Presumed effect = Federer winning the match
Testable? Yes
11.
Presumed cause: = Federer’s stronger desire to win
Presumed effect = Federer’s winning
Testable? No; not possible to compare strength of two people’s desires
12.
Presumed cause: = Tuck’s having a command of the upper register
Presumed effect = Tuck’s playing high notes so well
Testable? No, due to circularity
13.
Presumed cause: = Professor York’s having gone to Paris
Presumed effect = Professor York’s French having improved
Testable? Yes
14.
Presumed cause: = men’s being biologically weaker
Presumed effect = men’s not living as long
Testable? No; can’t tell what counts as being biologically weaker
15.
Presumed cause: = smoking marijuana
Presumed effect = lung cancer
Testable? Yes
Exercise A-16
1.
Presumed cause: Having blue eyes in a previous incarnation
Presumed effect: Having blue eyes in this incarnation
Testable? No, can't tell whether someone has been in a previous incarnation
2. Presumed cause: Pacers gaining momentum
Presumed effect: Pacers doing better in the second half
Testable? No, due to circularity
3. Presumed cause: Alcoholics being addicted to liquor
Presumed effect: Alcoholic not being able to give up drinking
Testable? No, due to circularity
4. Presumed cause: Reviewers praising the movie
Presumed effect: The movie’s being a big hit
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Testable? This specific claim isn’t testable, but whether favorable reviews correlate with box office success might be ascertained
5. Presumed cause: Nichola’ wanting to have bad luck
Presumed effect: Nicholas’ having bad luck
Testable? No, due to vagueness
6. Presumed cause: My having been exposed to subliminal advertising
Presumed effect: My liking Budweiser
Testable? Whether subliminal advertising can potentially affect consumer preferences might
be ascertainable
7. Presumed cause: A lack of mature vegetation
Presumed effect: Being subject to mudslides
Testable? Yes
8. Presumed cause: The growth of the Internet
Presumed effect: A decline in insurance prices
Testable? Whether a correlation can be ascertained
9. Presumed cause: The men’s being connected with bioterror and germ warfare
Presumed effect: The men’s dying in strange and violent circumstances
Testable? No, due to vagueness
10. Presumed cause: Ryan’s transferring his grief from his mother’s death to his dog’s
Presumed effect: Ryan’s being upset when his dog died
Testable? Difficult, but perhaps not impossible via “best diagnosis” method
11. Presumed cause: Her having a hard time waking up in the morning
Presumed effect: Her sleeping late
Testable? No, due to circularity
12. Presumed cause: Susan Blackmore having subconscious resistance to the idea that psychic
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phenomena exist
Presumed effect: Susan Blackmore failing to find evidence of ESP in numerous experiments
Testable? No. There is no way to tell whether someone resists something subconsciously,
due primarily to the vagueness of the concept.
13. Presumed cause: Tourists defying an ancient curse by taking rocks home from Hawaii’s
Volcanoes National Park
Presumed effect: Tourists having the various misfortunes reported in the item
Testable? One cannot know whether these misfortunes would have occurred if the rocks had not been taken home. Also there is no way of determining when an event qualifies as a misfortune, due to the vagueness of the concept.
1. a
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. c
14. Presumed cause: The existence of Rap.
Presumed effect: The existence of much violence
Testable? No, due to the vagueness of “much violence” and the difficulty of establishing any causal connection
15. Presumed cause: My father’s being a heavy drinker
Presumed effect: My getting into so much trouble as a kid
Testable? One might ascertain whether there is a correlation between heavy drinking on the part of fathers and getting into trouble on the part of their children, if sampling frames for these concepts were specified.
16. Presumed cause: Five men trying to lift the stone ball with their forefingers while saying a
prayer. Presumed effect: The stone ball rising miraculously
Testable? Yes. Whether the stone ball rises without audible prayers can be tested.
Exercise A-17
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7. a
8. b
9. b
10. b
11. b
12. a
13. b
14. a
15. b
16. b
17. b
18. b
19. a
Exercise A-18
A = overlooking prior probabilities or false positives
B = overlooking the possibility of regression
C = misplacing the burden of proof
D = argument from anecdote
E = conditio sine qua non
F = confusing explanations with excuses
1.B
2. A
3. C or D. Item 4, below, is a better example of C.
4. C
5. B
6. D
7. E
8. E
9. B
10. A
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