Jonathan R. White
www.cengage.com/cj/white
Rosemary Arway
Hodges University
 Defining
globalization
 Connecting globalization to modernity
and major social change
 Examining social movements: what they
are and how they are global
 Exploring what social forces lead to
increased globalization
2
 Globalization
is the process through
which the world is increasingly
connected and interdependent.
• At level of individuals, groups, organizations,
states, and so on
• This process is largely associated with economic
and political change.
 In
the modern period, globalization has
accelerated rapidly.
3





Responding to environmental factors
Emergence of the political state
New communication technologies
Religious pluralism and the need for
tolerance
Expansion of industrial capitalism
4
 Postindustrial
society: Knowledge and
service become the primary products.
 Postmodernity: A rupture with core
understandings of history and belief—no
central narratives, only diversity
5
 Collective
action is a factor in social
change.
 Many movements today—including the
anti-globalization movement—are global
in scope.
 We now have new social movements,
which are less goal oriented and more
identity oriented.
6




Economic deprivation
Resource mobilization
Structural strain
Fields of action
7
 Use
of Internet for organization and
fundraising
 Speeds up the process with instant
information and response.
 Allows for fast coordination of events like
rallies, protests, and so on.
 Could indicate a shift in power
8
 Economic
factors
• Transnational corporations
• Integrated financial markets
 Global flow of information and
communication
9
 Political
changes
• Fall of communist regimes
• Rise of IGOs and INGOs
• Rising importance of international
coalitions (the European Union, United
Nations, etc.)
10
1. IKEA furniture
______________
2. Wii games
______________
3. H&M fashions
______________
4. L’Oreal shampoos or beauty products
______________
5. Samsung cell phone or PDA
______________
6. Molson beer
______________
7. Birkenstock sandals
______________
8. Diesel jeans
______________
9. Apple iPhone
______________
10. American Express credit card
______________
11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
IKEA: founded in Sweden, now owned
by a Dutch foundation
Wii: MNC in Kyoto, Japan
H&M: Swedish company
L’Oreal: Paris suburb
Samsung cell or PDA: Seoul, South
Korea
Molson beer: Montreal, Canada
12
7. Birkenstocks: Germany
8. Diesel jeans: Molvena, Italy
9. Apple iPhone: established in California,
parts from China
10. American Express: New York City
13
 There
are three main positions:
• Skeptics
• Hyperglobalizers
• Transformationalists
14
 Increasing
need to construct our
identities
 Significant shifts in work and family life
 Ubiquity of Western—especially
American—popular culture
15
 Manufactured
risk versus external risk
 Potentially devastating consequences
• Urbanization and industrialization
• Pollution
• Global warming
• Nuclear power
• Bioengineered food
16

Wealth concentrated in the developed
world
• Poorest 40 percent of global population—5
percent of global income
• Richest 10 percent—54 percent of global income

Global markets have exacerbated this
problem: The gap between rich and
poor is growing.
17
Between Richer and Poor Countries, 1800 – 2008
GOP PER CAPITA*
1800
2008
USA
$1,343
$42,922
GERMANY
$1,643
$32,637
JAPAN
$896
$31,824
REPUBLIC OF KOREA
$740
$23,845
BRAZIL
$509
$9,633
SOUTH AFRICA
$759
$9,630
EGYPT
$748
$5,678
CHINA
$992
$5,520
PAKISTAN
$665
$2,671
2008
1980
1950
DEM. REP. OF CONGO $394
1900
$370
* 2008 U.S. $
Essentials Of Sociology, 3rd Edition
Copyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
Note: GDP for South Africa from 1911;
1900 data not available
1800
SOURCE: Gapminder.com 2009
18
Between Richer and Poor Countries, 1800 – 2008
MEDIAN GOP PER CAPITA*
$40K
$20K
$0K
1850
Low Income
Countries
1900
Medium Income
Countries
Essentials Of Sociology, 3rd Edition Copyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
1950
2000
High Income
Countries
SOURCE: Gapminder.com 2009
19
 Many
INGOs believe free trade will
reduce global inequality
 Critics argue that a global justice
movement that pushes for trade
organized around protecting rights and
resources is needed.
20
 All
sociologists would agree that “society” is
not a monolithic arrangement- it has parts.
 Society can be divided among:
•
•
•
•
Interdependent institutions
Genders
Various groups and networks
… and many, many other elements.
 The “Conflict
Approaches” in sociology see
society as comprising inequality and conflict
among its elements.
 “Stratification” refers
to a system of inequality.
Society is stratified.
 Five principles:
• It’s social, not “natural.”
• It’s persistent, even as societies change.
• It’s omnipresent in nearly all social settings, even in
socialist systems.
• It’s supported by ideology.
• It’s micro- as well as a macro-level.
 Ascription
vs Achievement: Both are at
work in social stratification.
 Caste: A purely ascription-based system.
 Class: A combination of ascription and
achievement.
 Meritocracy: A purely achievementbased system.
 Sellin
and others look to culture as the
stratifying principle.
• Culture=a social group’s beliefs, values, ways of
adapting to their natural environment, etc.
• Cultural conflict occurs through immigration,
changes in borders, etc.
• Dominant cultural groups “win” in conflict by
assimilating the less-powerful group or treating
it as deviant.
 Developed
by Weber and his heirs (eg
Dahrendorf)
 Society consists of various interest groups
that vary in power.
 These interests groups are defined by:
• Financial situation (CLASS- and there are many
classes according to Weber)
• Prestige (STATUS)
• Political position (PARTY)
 “Power” can
entail any of these dimensions
and for some people all three of them.
 Pejorative
Connotation
• Negative and derogatory
• Political and social degradation when labeled a
terrorist
▪ Particular individuals and/or groups are demonized
• Dual standards and contradictions lead to
confusion any time the term terrorism is
employed.
 Alex
Schmid:
• Terrorism is a social construct, which means it is :
▪
▪
▪
defined by people from different social backgrounds.
developed through the application of political power.
its definition changes within social and historical
contexts.
• Social construct: Vacillating social and political
realities influence definition.
 FBI views Hezbollah as a terrorist group.
 Organization of Islamic Conferences views Hezbollah as
a legitimate revolutionary force.
 Official
FBI definition of terrorism separates
domestic and international terrorism.
• Domestic terrorism refers to activities that involve
acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of
the criminal law of the U.S. or any state; appear to be
intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian populace,
influence policy of a government by mass
destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and occur
primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the U.S.
• International terrorism involves violent acts or acts
dangerous to human life that are a violation of the
U.S. or any state, or that would be a criminal
violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the
U.S. or any state.
 Definition
of terrorism is influenced by
history.
• 1789 – 1795 French Revolution
▪ Term terrorism used to describe actions of the French
government.
• Late 1800s – Early 1900s
 Terrorism used to describe violent activities of
various groups:
 Labor organizations, nationalist groups revolting against
foreign powers
• Mid-1960s – Early 1980s
 Terrorism applied to nationalists and violent left-wing
groups (hate movement).
• Present day
 Terrorism encompasses such groups as violent
religious fanatics; groups who terrorize for a
particular cause.
 Environmental groups
 Narco-terrorism
 Ecological groups
 Meaning
of terrorism fluctuates around
various types of war.
• Commando tactics
• Guerrilla warfare
 Term
terrorism is used to describe
violent activity that explodes during a
peaceful period.
• Insurrection in Iraq after 2003 U.S. invasion
 Governments
can increase their power
when they label opponents as terrorists.
• More public acceptance of governmental power
• Beccaria proposed that when a state becomes an
executioner it does not act in self-defense but
simply in revenge .
 Terrorists
are not deserving of humanitarian
privileges.
• Labeling can have dire results:
▪ Illegal arrests
▪ Lack of constitutional protection (Guantanamo Bay, Abu
Ghraib)
 Related
to the issue of power is repression.
 Routinely used by some governments to keep
citizens in line
• Secret police
▪ Joseph Stalin’s USSR
▪ Saddam Hussein’s Iraq
▪ Latin America
 Repression
developed outside formal political
structures is called extra-juridical repression.
• Repressive groups who use terrorism as a means of
creating conforming behavior
 The
definition of terrorism is also
influenced by:
• Media
▪ Attracts attention
▪ Term terrorism is used to define political violence
▪ Uses multiple definitions to engage public debate
• Crime
▪ Criminal act versus act of terrorism
▪ Terrorism always involves some king of criminal
activity
• Religion
• Specific types of terrorism:
▪ Violent eschatology
▪ Religious purification
▪ Martyrdom
▪ Religion as a cause
• Specific types of terrorism:
 Technological terrorism, cyber-terrorism, narcoterrorism, eco-terrorism, nuclear terrorism, agriterrorism
 The
range of definitions include:
• Laqueur’s Simple definition:
▪ Use of force to achieve political objective; targets innocent people.
• Legal Definition:
▪ Internal contradiction and short-sided, designed to give to the
government power to take an action against specific crimes.
• Schmid’s Academic Consensus Definition:
▪ Terrorism should be viewed as a method of combat in which the
victims serve as symbolic targets.
• Badey’s definition:
▪ Importance of examination of terrorists:
▪ Internal – by terrorist themselves (do they work with or against
state)
▪ External – by the governments (intent, motivation, chances of
repetition)
 Strengths:
• Broad scope of problem presented.
▪ Terrorism is not defined as a single action; rather, terrorism
can be considered a composition of a variety of actions.
• Aids in identification of the kind of terrorism to be
examined.
▪ Local, national, international
• Provides for the level of the problem to be
identified.
▪ This in turn allows for the determination of the level of
response.
• Use of typologies avoids debates on the meaning of
terrorism.
 Weaknesses:
• Typologies do not solve definitional dilemmas.
• The typologies and definition change because
terrorism is in a constant state of change.
• Typologies describe patterns, not specifics.
 Each terrorist incident must be viewed and
understood individually in its special social,
historical, and political circumstances.
• Distorts reality
▪ Alter terrorist act to blend with a particular
typology.
 Humans
live in constant state of conflict.
 Spectrum of conflict
• Conflicts can range from low-level conflicts to
nuclear devastation.
• Terrorism is a form of civil disobedience.
 Tactical typology
• The level of activity is correlated with the size
of the group.
• Terrorism is primarily a problem for law
enforcement and the justice system.
• Terrorists have acted outside the law.
 War
declared on a concept such as the “war
on terrorism” is not possible under the U.S.
Constitution.
 President G. W. Bush:
• America and its allies are at war with terrorism.
 President
B. Obama:
• Terrorism is a criminal justice problem and
military force is used to augment legal power.
 The
U.S. Government:
• The weapons that America will use in the war on
terror would be the Homeland Security Act of
2002 and the USA Patriot Act of 2001.
 Arguments
accepting the “war on
terrorism” include:
• Friedman:
▪ War on terror is the third great struggle against
totalitarianism.
• Blank:
▪ Terrorism is caused by radical groups driven by
economic, social and political pressures.
• Cohen and Hill:
▪ There is a necessity to identify militant groups and to
present military power in the face of these groups.
•
Arguments that do not accept the war on
terrorism:
– Howard:
▪ Terrorism is an emergency situation that should be
handled by law enforcement and intelligence.
– Duffy:
▪ A militaristic framework of the war on terrorism
marginalizes the rule of law.
– Ringmar:
▪ Engaging in a war against terror may dehumanize the
opposing side.
 The
primary job of law enforcement in
preventing terrorism is to stop criminal
activity within criminal networks.
 Terrorists target the societal structures, not
the military forces.
 Law enforcement responsibility:
• Maintaining public safety
• Collecting criminal intelligence
• Sharing information in a legal manner
 Carl
von Clausewitz’s theory of war:
• War requires mobilization of the population and
imposes political will on the defeated.
 Sun
Tzu’s theory of war:
• The highest form of military leadership comes
in breaking the enemy’s resistance without
fighting.
• The purpose of terrorism is to give the
immersion that powerful economic, military
and political forces cannot protect ordinary
people.
 Pearl
Harbor: attack attempted to
destroy a military force
 9/11 attacks: designed for drama
 9/11 attacks: tragedy performed on the
sub-national level
 9/11 attacks: terrorist “success” was
assured by God’s promise
 David
Bell’s timeline:
• 17th and 18th century:
▪ Political wars sought to maintain the political system
• The French Revolution:
▪ Total war
• Today:
▪ Technological advances make the destruction of the
planet in total war a possibility, while at the same time
making terrorism possible.
 Hiroshima
and Nagasaki:
• Technological advance took the war on the next
level, making the destruction and total war
(terrorism) the reality.
 Can
Hiroshima and Nagasaki be
considered:
• a war crime or act of the terrorism?
• an attack on the city or nation?
• a politically explained act?
• an absolutely necessary act?
• the day of America’s infamy?
 Terrorism
expert Walter Laqueur has counted
over 100 definitions and concludes that:
• “the only general characteristic generally agreed upon is
that terrorism involves violence and the threat of
violence.Yet terrorism is hardly the only enterprise
involving violence and the threat of violence. So does war,
coercive diplomacy, and bar room brawls.”
(Laqueur, W. (1999). The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of
Mass Destruction. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 6.)
 In
2005, Secretary General of United Nations,
Kofi Annan presented “terrorism proposal”
hoping that other countries will finally agree on
the definition of terrorism.
Terrorism Evolves
In the half-century after the World War Two, terrorism broadened well
beyond assassination of political leaders and heads of state
In some European colonies, terrorist movements developed, often
with two distinct purposes.
1: to put pressure on the colonial powers (such as Britain, France, and the
Netherlands) to hasten their withdrawal.
2: to intimidate the indigenous population into supporting a particular group's claims
to leadership of the emerging post-colonial state.
India's achievement of independence in 1947 was mainly the result,
not of terrorism, but of the movement of non-violent civil disobedience
led by Gandhi
In Malaya, communist terrorists launched a major campaign in 1948,
but they failed due to a mixture of determined British military
Civilians as Targets
Terrorism did not end after the winding-up of the main European
overseas empires in the 1950s and 1960s. It continued in many
regions.
In South-East Asia, Middle East and Latin America there were
killings of policemen and local officials, hostage-takings, hijackings
of aircraft, and bombings of buildings
In many actions, civilians became targets.
In some cases governments became involved in supporting
terrorism, almost invariably at arm's length so as to be deniable.
The causes espoused by terrorists encompassed not just
revolutionary socialism and nationalism, but also in a few cases
religious doctrines. Law, even the modest body of rules setting
some limits in armed conflict between states, could be ignored in a
Civilians as Targets
How did certain terrorist movements come
to be associated with indiscriminate killings?
September 1970 - Palestinian terrorists hijacked
several large aircraft and blew them up on the
ground in Jordan but let the passengers free
Viewed by many with as much fascination as horror
September 1972, 11 Israelis were murdered in a Palestinian attack
on Israeli athletes at the Olympic Games at Munich
This event showed a determination to kill: the revulsion felt in many
countries was stronger than two years earlier
Justification
A justification offered by the perpetrators of these and many
subsequent terrorist actions in the Middle East was that the Israeli
occupation of the West Bank and Gaza (which had begun in 1967)
was an exercise of violence against which counter-violence was
legitimate.
The same was said in connection with the suicide bombings by
which Palestinians attacked Israel in 2001-2002.
In some of the suicide bombings there was a new element which
had not been evident in the Palestinian terrorism of 2 or 3 decades
earlier: Islamic religious extremism.
Beyond the State
In the 1990s, a new face of terrorism emerged.
Osama Bin Laden, son of a successful construction engineer
became leader of a small fanatical Islamic movement Al-Qaida
Its public statements were an odd mixture of religious extremism,
contempt
for existing Arab regimes, hostility to US dominance, and
insensitivity to the
effects of terrorist actions
Many of its leaders, having helped to free Afghanistan of Soviet
occupation
in the 1980s, now developed the broader ambition of resisting
western
dominance, especially in Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia
and Egypt
New Kind of Terrorism
Here was a new kind of movement that had
a cause
a network, that was
not confined to any one state
whose adherents were willing to commit suicide if they could
thereby inflict carnage and destruction on their adversaries
Since their aims were vague and apocalyptic, there was little scope
for any
kind of compromise or negotiation
United Nations
Main emphasis at the UN was on limited
practical measures
Series of 12 international conventions between 1963 and 1999,
particular terrorist actions, such as aircraft hijacking and diplomatic
hostage-taking, were prohibited
As the 1990s progressed, and concern about terrorism increased,
the UN General Assembly embarked on discussions about defining
and outlawing terrorism generally. Its Legal Committee issued a
rough draft of a convention, which:
Reiterates that criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state
of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons
for political purposes are in any circumstances unjustifiable, whatever
the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial,
ethnic, religious or other nature that may be used to justify them.
Terrorist Groups
In the past there have been strong disagreements
about whether certain movements were or were not
terrorist: e.g.
Jewish extremist group Irgun in Palestine in the 1940s
Viet Cong in South Vietnam from the late 1950s to the mid1970s Provisional IRA in Northern Ireland from the late 1960s
onwards
Famously, in 1987-88 the UK and US governments labelled the
African National Congress of South Africa 'terrorist': a questionable
attribution even at the time not because there had been no
violence, but because the ANC's use of violence had been
discriminate and had constituted only a small part of the ANC's
International Revulsion
The new face of terrorism as mass murder is significantly changing
such debates
The extremism of the September 11 attacks has led to a strong
international reaction. As a result, none of the 189 member states of
the UN opposed the USA's right to take military action in
Afghanistan after the events of September 11, and none has offered
explicit support for Al-Qaida
By engaging in crimes against humanity, the new face of terrorism
may have contributed to its own eventual demise.
Dr. Theodore John Kaczynski
16 bombs
1978 - 1995
3 killed
23 injured
Freedom Club
Dr. Theodore John Kaczynski
Richard Reid
Attempted bombing on AA 63
22 Dec 2001
Shoe bomber
Beltway Sniper Attacks
Oct 2002
John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo
Washington DC snipers in blue Chevrolet Caprice
Demanded 1 Million USD to fund Islamic Training Camps
10 killed
3 critically injured
Terrorism as Routine News
False Flag Terrorism
Nero burned Rome to blame the Christians A.D. 64
US provoked Mexican-American war 1846
USS Maine sinking 1898
Lusitania sinking 1915
Reichstag fire 1933
Hitler’s staged attack on the Gleiwitz radio station 1939
The “surprise attack” at Pearl Harbor 1941
Bay of Pigs conspiracy 1961
Terrorism 2000
Al-Qaeda terrorist network carried out two separate attacks against
the
United States in 2000 and 2001.
a suicide bombing of the U.S. naval destroyer USS Cole in the
Yemenese port of Aden on October 12, 2000, claimed the lives of 17 U.S.
sailors.
a coordinated suicide attack using four hijacked U.S. commercial aircraft
as missiles on September 11, 2001, resulted in the deaths of 2,783
innocent people.
The September 11 attacks represent the most deadly and destructive
terrorist
attack in history and claimed more lives than all previous acts of
terrorism in
the United States combined.
Eco Terrorism
Bilateral term
Anarcho Primitivism
Green Anarchism
Radical Environmentalism
Consumer Terrorism
Lone wolf operations
Monetary motives
Disgruntled employees / ex-employees
Incidents Vs. Preventions
Political Motivation
Anthrax Postal Campaign
Black Panthers
10 point programme
•We want power to determine the destiny of our black and oppressed communities' education that teaches
us our true history and our role in the present day society.
•We want completely free health care for all black and oppressed people.
•We want an immediate end to police brutality and murder of black people, other people of colour, and all
oppressed people inside the United States.
•We want an immediate end to all wars of aggression.
•We want full employment for our people.
•We want an end to the robbery by the capitalists of our Black Community.
•We want decent housing, fit for the shelter of human beings.
•We want decent education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society.
•We want freedom for all black and oppressed people now held in U. S. Federal, state, county, city and
military prisons and jails. We want trials by a jury of peers for all persons charged with so-called crimes
under the laws of this country.
•We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice, peace and people's community control of
modern technology
FBI J Edgar Hoover
“the greatest threat to the internal security of the country,”
Oklahoma City Bomber – Hard Line Justice
White Supremacists
Pro-Life Extremists
Terrorist Activity by Target
Restriction of Freedom and Civil Liberties
 The
Uniting and Strengthening America by
Providing Appropriate Tools Required to
Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001,
known as the USA PATRIOT Act or simply the
Patriot Act, is legislation of the US-Congress
which was signed by President George W. Bush
into law on October 26, 2001.
 The
Act was passed 45 days after the
September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade
Center in New York City.



It substantially expanded the authority of U.S. law enforcement
agencies for the stated purpose of fighting terrorism in the United
States and abroad.
The Act increased the ability of law enforcement agencies to
search telephone and e-mail communications and medical,
financial and other records; eased restrictions on foreign
intelligence gathering within the United States; expanded the
Secretary of the Treasury’s authority to regulate financial
transactions, particularly those involving foreign individuals and
entities; and enhanced the discretion of law enforcement and
immigration authorities in detaining and deporting immigrants
suspected of terrorism-related acts.
The act also expanded the definition of terrorism to include
"domestic terrorism," thus enlarging the number of activities to
which the Patriot Act’s expanded law enforcement powers can be
applied.

The USA PATRIOT Act has ten titles, each containing numerous sections.

Title II: Enhanced Surveillance Procedures granted increased powers of
surveillance to various government agencies and bodies.




This title has 25 sections, with one of the sections (section 224) containing a sunset
clause which sets an expiration date, 31 December 2005, for most of the title's
provisions.
In July 2005, the U.S. Senate passed a reauthorization bill with substantial changes to
several sections of the act, while the House reauthorization bill kept most of the
act's original language.
The two bills were then reconciled in a conference committee that was criticized by
Senators from both parties for ignoring civil liberty concerns.
The bill, which removed most of the changes from the Senate version, passed
Congress on March 2, 2006 and was signed into law by President Bush on March 9,
2006.

Title VIII alters the definitions of terrorism, and establishes or re-defines
rules.

It redefined the term "domestic terrorism" to broadly include mass
destruction as well as assassination or kidnapping as a terrorist activity.


The definition also encompasses activities that are "dangerous to human
life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any
State" and are intended to "intimidate or coerce a civilian population,"
"influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion," or are
undertaken "to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction,
assassination, or kidnapping" while in the jurisdiction of the United States.
A number of measures were introduced in an attempt to prevent and
penalize activities that are deemed to support terrorism. It was made a
crime to harbor or conceal terrorists, and those who do are subject to a
fine or imprisonment of up to 10 years, or both.
The act improves the counter- terrorism effort in
several significant ways:
1.
The patriot act allows investigators to use the
tools that were already avaliable to investigate
organized crime and drug trafficking.


Allows law enforcement to use surveillance against
more crimes of terror.
Allows federal agents to follow sophisticated terrorist
trained to evade detection


Allows law enforcement to conduct investigations without
tipping off terrorists.
Allows federal agents to ask a court an order to obtain
business records in national security terrorism cases.
2.
The Patriot Act update the law to reflect new
technologies and new threats.

Allows law enforcement officials to obtain a search warrant
anywhere a terrorist-related activity ocurred.
Allows victims of computer hacking to request law
enforcement assitance monitoring the “trespassers” on
their computers.

3.
The Patriot Act increased the penalties for those
who commit terrorist crimes, so the Patriot Acts:

Prohibits the harboring of terrorists.
Enhanced the inadequate maxium penalties for various
crimes likely to be commited by terrorists.
Enhanced a number of conspiracy penalties.


 In
this context, some texts are in favour
of “The Patriot act”, for instance:
(…) the authorities of the Patriot Act exist to
protect the very liberties that our Founders
established in the Constitution. By protecting
our freedoms, our civil liberties are enhanced,
not diminished.
Tom Ridge, J.D., former Homeland Security Secretary, in his July 15,
2004 speech “Prepared Remarks at the Allegheny County
Emergency Operations Center”.
 Unconstitutional: constitutional
freedoms
are in danger.
 Danger to individual rights.
 Is a threat against freedom of expression.
 Examples:
• Distress signal at Grinnell.
• Peace offense in New York.
• Full exposure in Florida.

USA PATRIOT Act gives the Attorney General and
federal law enforcement unnecessary and
permanent new powers to violate civil liberties
that go far beyond the stated goal of fighting
international terrorism.
The American Civil Liberties Union’s (ACLU) wrote in their
Oct.23, 2001 “Letter to the Senate Urging Rejection on the Final
Version of the USA PATRIOT Act”.
Jonathan R. White
www.cengage.com/cj/white
Rosemary Arway
Hodges University