Differentiation Strategies:
Making the Most of
Needs-Based Time
Sharon Walpole
University of Delaware
We can provide whole-class instruction
We can use intensive interventions
We can provide whole-class instruction
But can we differentiate
during needs-based
instruction?
We can use intensive interventions
What do we want
by the end of kindergarten?
Alphabetic
Principle
Text and Language
Comprehension
In addition, what do we want by the end
of first grade?
Word Recognition
Text and Language
Comprehension
In addition, what do we want
by the end of second grade?
Word Recognition
Text and Language
Comprehension
In addition, what do we want
by end of third grade?
Word Recognition
Text and Language
Comprehension
Focused Teaching
Needs-based instruction helps us reach our
grade level goals
Small-group
Flexibly achievement-based
Data-driven
Targeted
Explicit
Systematic
Given These Goals:
Today’s Questions
What data do we already have?
What additional data do we need?
How can we differentiate realistically
and in an organized way with
research-based strategies during
needs-based groups?
www.guilford.com
What is the general philosophy of the
cognitive model of reading assessment?
How is this model helpful?
Can you give an example?
Phonological
Awareness
Decoding
Sight Word
Knowledge
Automatic
Word
Recognition
Vocabulary
Background
Knowledge
Knowledge
of Structure
Print
Concepts
General
Purposes
for Reading
Fluency
& Context
Language
Comprehension
Strategic
Knowledge
Specific
Purposes
for Reading
Knowledge
of Strategies
for Reading
Reading
Comprehension
Phonological
Awareness
Decoding
Sight Word
Knowledge
Automatic
Word
Recognition
Vocabulary
Background
Knowledge
Knowledge
of Structure
Print
Concepts
General
Purposes
for Reading
Fluency
& Context
Language
Comprehension
Strategic
Knowledge
Specific
Purposes
for Reading
Knowledge
of Strategies
for Reading
Reading
Comprehension
General philosophy of the “sensible”
model of needs-based instruction:
Needs-based instruction is costly in terms of
teacher time and effort; we have to make it
realistic for teachers and effective for literacy
acceleration.
Needs-based instruction during the block
must be more explicit, include more
opportunities for individuals to respond, and
provide for more immediate feedback.
Needs-based instruction must be data-based,
organized and systematic.
Once teachers form and manage needsbased groups what additional
roadblocks do they face in
providing needs-based
differentiated instruction?
Screening Test
Screening Test
Serious
difficulty?
Screening Test
Serious
difficulty?
No
Screening Test
Serious
difficulty?
No
Classroom
measures
Screening Test
Yes
Serious
difficulty?
No
Classroom
measures
Screening Test
Yes
Detective
Work
Progress
monitoring
Serious
difficulty?
No
Classroom
measures
How can we make
that loop?
What do we need
to do that’s new?
DIBELS Refresher
What do you
know?
LNF High Risk
NWF High Risk
PSF High Risk
ORF High Risk
What do you
need to know?
Assessment Information
for Alphabetic Principle
Letter names (LNF)
Letter sounds (NWF)
Phoneme segmentation (PSF)
Reading of CVC words (NWF)
Spelling of CVC words
IF LNF weak in K, THEN
The child does not have fully automatic access to
memory representations for the letters when
presented out of order . . .
BUT
What alphabet knowledge does s/he have?
and
What should you do?
Provide targeted practice with letters
If the child can name all
of the letters randomly
but not quickly
Then use distributed practice,
choosing 5 or 6 different letters
each day
If the child can name
some of the letters
Then use distributed practice,
choosing 4 or 5 troublesome
ones every two days
If the child can only name Then reteach in small sets,
the letters in order
using the same scope and
sequence as the core
If the child has no
alphabet knowledge
Then teach to sing, then to
track and say the alphabet
Provide targeted practice with letters.
If the child can name
all of the letters randomly
but not quickly
Then use distributed practice,
choosing 5 or 6 different
letters each day
If the child can name
the letters in order
Then use distributed practice,
choosing 4 or 5 troublesome
ones every two days
If the child can only name
the letters in order
Then reteach in small sets,
using the same scope and
sequence as the core.
If the child has no
alphabet knowledge
Then teach to sing, then track
and say the alphabet.
What’s the key to making this work?
Use a letter name inventory.
Know the order in which letters are
taught in your core.
Keep a set of letter cards in your
needs-based instruction area.
Keep alphabet strips and materials in
your needs-based instruction area.
IF PSF weak in K, THEN
The child does not have relatively effortless ability
to notice and manipulate the sound structure of
oral language and may struggle to learn and/or
use phonics knowledge
BUT
What phonological awareness does s/he have?
and
What should you do?
Provide targeted practice with sound boxes
If the child can segment
fully, but not quickly
Then use sound boxes,
choosing 5 or 6 different CVC
words each day
If the child can segment to Then use sound boxes,
the onset-rime but not to the choosing words that differ
phoneme
only by medial vowel
If the child can only identify
initial sounds
Then use sound boxes to
segment onset-rime
If the child has no
demonstrable phonological
awareness
Then teach to recognize
syllables and then rhymes
Provide targeted practice with sound boxes.
If the child can segment
fully, but not quickly
Then use sound boxes,
choosing 5 or 6 different
CVC words each day
If the child can segment
to the onset-rime but
not to the phoneme
Then use sound boxes,
choosing words that differ
only by medial vowel
If the child can only identify
initial sounds
Then use sound boxes
to segment onset-rime
If the child has no
demonstrable phonological
awareness
Then teach to recognize
syllable and then rhymes
Sound Boxes
Sound Boxes
Sound Boxes
Sound Boxes
What’s the key to making this
work?
Look at the phoneme segmentation testing
protocol
Organize several sets of word cards:
random CVC, different medial vowel,
onset-rime within the same word family,
multi-syllabic words
Keep two-, three-, and four-unit sound
boxes in your needs-based instruction
area
IF NWF weak in K, THEN
The child can neither readily recognize short vowel
patterns automatically nor apply decoding
strategies quickly to unknown words
BUT
What phonics knowledge and decoding skills does
s/he have?
and
What should you do?
Provide targeted phonics reteaching
If the child can decode
nonsense words sound by
sound, but not in larger
chunks
If the child can produce
accurate consonant
sounds but not vowel
sounds
Work with sounding and
blending initial consonants with
several high-frequency vowel
spelling patterns each day; ask
children to write them
Work with sounding and
blending several highfrequency vowel patterns each
week; ask children to write
them
If the child does not know Then reteach the letter sounds
consonant sounds in
in small sets, using the same
isolation
scope and sequence as the
core; ask children to write them
Provide targeted phonics reteaching
If the child can decode
nonsense word sound by
sound, but not in larger
chunks
Work with sounding and
blending initial consonants with
several high-frequency vowel
spelling patterns each day
If the child can produce
accurate consonant sounds
but not vowel sounds
Work with sounding and
blending several highfrequency vowel patterns
each week
If the child does not
know consonant sounds
in isolation
Then reteach the letter sounds
In small sets, using the same
scope and sequence
as the core
IF the child can read but
cannot spell regular CVC words,
THEN
The child does not have fully amalgamated
representations of sound and spelling
BUT
What knowledge of spelling patterns
does the child have?
What’s the key to making this
work?
Look at the NWF protocol to see what units (individual
sounds or vowel patterns) the child is producing.
Consider using a letter-sound inventory.
Consider using a spelling inventory.
Know the order in which phonics knowledge is developed
in your core.
Keep a list of previously taught items for review.
Watch children’s spellings for evidence of application of
phonics concepts previously taught.
Assessment Information for Text and Language
Comprehension
Oral vocabulary development (PPVT)
Concepts about print
Engagement with narrative and information
literature
Retellings and summaries
IF oral vocabulary is weak, THEN
Compared with other children of the same age, the
child has a relatively small oral vocabulary.
BUT
It is impossible to know
which words are unknown.
What should you do?
Provide targeted vocabulary reteaching
for words the children don’t know
If you have presented word Reteach and review those
meanings in whole-group
words, helping each student to
core lessons
generate a personal context
If you have presented word Reteach and review those
meanings in a piece of
words, helping each student to
children’s literature
generate a personal context
If you have taught new
concepts in science and
social studies
Reteach and review those
words, helping each student to
generate a personal context
Provide targeted vocabulary reteaching
If you have presented word
meanings in whole-group
core lessons
Reteach and review those
words, helping each student
to generate a personal context
If you have presented word
meanings in a piece of
children’s literature
Reteach and review those
words, helping each
student to generate a
personal context
If you have taught new
concepts in science and
social studies
Reteach and review those
words, helping each student
to generate a
personal context
Provide increased vocabulary exposure
If caregivers are able to read
aloud at night
If caregivers are not able to
read aloud at night
Allow children to bring home
narrative and information
trade books from the class or
school library
Allow children to bring home
books and audio recordings
and equipment to listen to
books read aloud
Provide increased vocabulary exposure
If caregivers are able
to read aloud at night
Allow children to bring home
narrative and information
trade books from the class
or school library
If caregivers are not able
to read aloud at night
Allow children to take home
books and audio recordings
and equipment to listen
to books read aloud
What’s the key to making this
work?
Review PPVT scores for all kindergartners and identify
low-scoring children.
Keep lists of vocabulary words that have been taught in
core read-alouds but that children don’t know.
Keep lists of vocabulary words for teaching and
reteaching during interactive read-alouds.
Facilitate sending books and/or tapes home.
IF children cannot participate in classroom shared
readings and read-alouds, THEN
They may not have adequate oral language and
comprehension skills, and/or they may not have
had sufficient exposure to read-alouds.
BUT
It is impossible to diagnose their
specific “stage” of knowledge.
What should you do?
Provide targeted text-based talk
If you have conducted a
Reread that book in your
shared reading of a big book small group, allowing each
child to echo read with
supported finger pointing
If you have read a piece of
Reread it and stop
children’s literature
throughout to allow the
children to retell or to ask
questions
Once you have reread
Use graphic organizers to
during needs-based time
guide children to produce
beginning-middle-end
retellings or main idea
Provide targeted text-based talk
If you have conducted a
shared reading of a big book
Reread that book in your
small group, allowing
each child to echo read with
supported finger pointing
If you have read a
piece of children’s literature
Reread it and stop
throughout to allow the
children to retell or to
ask questions
Once you have reread
during needs-based time
Use graphic organizers to
guide children to produce
beginning-middle-end
retellings or main idea
Provide targeted word-based talk
If you have taught a specific
noun
Invite children to review it,
emphasizing both its general
category and its particular
attributes
If you have taught a
procedure
Invite children to review it,
emphasizing the order and
how and why to use it
If you have used an
explanation
Invite children to review it,
emphasizing the links
between ideas
Provide targeted word-based talk
If you have taught a
specific noun
Invite children to review it,
emphasizing both
its general category and
its particular attributes
If you have taught
a procedure
Invite children to review it,
emphasizing the order
and how and why it use it
If you have used an
explanation
Invite children to review it,
emphasizing the links
between ideas
What’s the key to making this
work?
Attend to children’s responses during whole-group
interactions with literature.
Periodically work individually with children to assess and
develop each child’s capacity to finger-point.
Periodically work individually with children to assess each
child’s capacity to retell or summarize after a read-aloud.
Encourage talk during whole-group and needs-based
instruction.
Assessment Information for Word Recognition
Beginning in First Grade
Phoneme segmentation (PSF)
Reading of CVC words (NWF)
Reading of high-frequency words?
Growth toward oral reading fluency (ORF)
IF PSF weak in first, THEN
The child does not have relatively effortless ability
to notice and manipulate the sound structure of
oral language and may struggle to learn and/or
use phonics knowledge
BUT
What phonological awareness doe s/he have?
What should you do?
Provide targeted practice with spelling for sound
If the child can segment
fully, but not quickly
If the child can segment to
the onset-rime but not to
the phoneme
Then use spelling tasks,
choosing 5 or 6 different
words from the current
phonics instruction each day
Then have children spell
words that differ only by
medial vowel
If the child can only identify
initial sounds
Then have children spell
initial and final sounds for
pictures
If the child has no
demonstrable phonological
awareness
Then consider using
intensive intervention
materials
Provide targeted practice with spelling for sound
If the child can segment
fully, but not quickly
Then use spelling tasks,
choosing 5 or 6 different
words from the current
phonics instruction each day
If the child can segment
to the onset-rime but
not to the phoneme
Then have children spell
words that differ only
by medial vowel
If the child can only identify
initial sounds
Then have children spell
initial and final sounds
for pictures
If the child has no
demonstrable
phonological awareness
Then consider using
intensive intervention
materials
What’s the key to making this work?
Look at the phoneme segmentation protocol
Understand the scope and sequence of phonics
instruction
Link additional phonemic awareness work to
current phonics work
Use letters during phonemic awareness instruction
(have children spell or manipulate plastic letters)
Make word lists and picture sorts
IF NWF weak in first or second, THEN
The child does not have relatively effortless ability
to recognize common phonograms or to apply
synthetic decoding strategies
BUT
What phonics knowledge and decoding strategies
does s/he have?
What should you do?
First, investigate
• Is there a phonics pretest included in your
core? If so, use it!
• If not, consider the Informal Phonics
Inventory, McKenna and Stahl, p. 138
– It will help you understand whether to reteach
consonant sounds, consonant digraphs, short
vowels, consonant blends, silent e, vowel
digraphs, vowel diphthongs, or r- or lcontrolled vowels
Then find a starting point
• Is there a phonics intervention manual? If
so, use it!
• If not, using the core scope and sequence
from your manual AND the manual from
the previous year, start where the child’s
knowledge ends
Then reteach, quickly and explicitly
Use direct explanation:
Today we will practice a strategy you can use to
read new words. I want you to make each sound
and then blend them together. Watch me do it.
Use guided practice:
I will show you a new word that you can sound and
blend.
Remember that when you find a new word, one thing
you can do is make each sound and blend them
together.
www.guilford.com
Then reteach, quickly and explicitly
Use direct explanation:
Today we will practice three letters/patterns. We will learn
that _____ pattern/letter represents the sound _____. You
can use that information when you read and spell new
words.
Use guided practice:
I will show you a word with one of our patterns and I want
you to read it. When you see the word, think about which of
our patterns you see. Then say the word.
I will tell you a word with one of our patterns and I want you
to spell it. When you hear the word, think about which of
our patterns you hear.
Remember to that ____ represents the sound ____.
What’s the key to making this work?
Use a phonics inventory.
Know the intervention materials provided in
your core.
Know the order in which phonics is taught in
your core, both for your grade level and the
one below.
Keep a set of letter and word cards in your
needs-based instruction area.
IF ORF is weak THEN
The child cannot process grade-level text
automatically
BUT
Is it a fluency problem or a decoding problem?
What should you do?
First, investigate
Review the ORF testing protocol:
• If the child read all words accurately, but
too slowly, consider fluency work
• If the child struggled with high-frequency
words, consider high-frequency word work
• If the child struggled with all areas of word
recognition, go back to the phonics
investigation.
For a fluency problem
Have all children whisper-read from
previously taught texts.
Use an assisted fluency procedure:
You read the text while children track
Children reread several times in pairs
You read the text again while children
track
Children reread in pairs
For a high-frequency word problem
First, figure out which high-frequency words
are troublesome.
If there is a sight-word inventory in your
core, use it!
If you can easily construct one from the
scope and sequence, do it!
For a model see the Fry Sight-Word
Inventory, beginning on page 130 of
McKenna and Stahl
Then reteach quickly and explicitly
Use direct explanation:
Today we will practice three common words. We
will listen to see how many sounds they have, and
then we will see how the sounds are represented
in spellings. That will help you to remember these
words when you see them.
Our first word is they. How many sounds do you
hear in they? TH-A. Two sounds. Now watch me
spell it. The first sound is spelled TH. The second
sound is spelled EY. Two sounds, four letters.
Use guided practice.
Now I want you to work with our three
words. I’ll say the word, and I want you to
count the sounds and then write the
spellings.
What’s the key to making this work?
Use a high-frequency word inventory.
Know the order in which high-frequency words
are taught in your core, both for your grade
level and the one below.
Keep a set of high-frequency word cards in your
needs-based instruction area.
Keep sound boxes, white boards, and paper in
your needs-based instruction area.
IF comprehension of text and
oral language is weak, THEN
The child does not have relatively effortless ability
to construct meaning using information and prior
knowledge
BUT
We don’t have a developmental theory for
comprehension
Assessment Information for Comprehension of
Text and Oral Language
Oral classroom interactions
Response during shared reading
Engagement with narrative and information
literature
Retellings and summaries
Build Background Knowledge
Look at the next story in the core.
For children struggling with comprehension
and oral language development, decide
what background knowledge is needed to
understand. Preteach that knowledge.
Build Background Knowledge
Look at the next story in the core.
For children struggling with comprehension
and oral language development, decide
what background knowledge is needed to
understand. Preteach that knowledge.
What the author
assumes the
reader knows
What the reader
actually knows
Teaching children to answer
questions
Question-Answer Relationships
(Raphael,1986)
In the Book
In Your Head
Right There
Author and You
Think and Search
On Your Own
QAR (Questions Answer Relationships)
Title ______________________________________________________________________
Right There
The words used to make up the question and words used to
answer the question are Right There in the same sentence.
Author and Me
The answer is not in the story. I need to think about what
I already know, what the author tells me in the text and
how it fits together.
________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Think and Search
On My Own
Words for the question and words for the answer are
not found in the same sentence. They come from
different places in the selection.
The answer is not in the selection. I can even answer the
question without reading the selection. I need to use my
own experience.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
See Page 57 in Manual
Teaching children to make
inferences
Questioning the Author (Beck, McKeown,
Hamilton, & Kucan, 1997)
Teaching children to make
inferences
Interrupt reading with generic queries
What is the author trying to say here?
What is the author’s message?
What does the author mean here?
How does this connect with what the author
has told us before?
Why do you think this happened?
Teaching children to retell
• Start with a story map, appropriate to the
grade level
– Simple beginning, middle, end map for first
grade
– More complex map for second and third
grade
• Model, model, model using the story map
to retell stories you are reading aloud or
reading in small groups
Think about it
To increase your ability to differentiate . . .
What additional information do you have to gather
about student achievement?
What additional information do you have to gather
about the scope and sequence of instruction?
What materials do you have to
gather/make/organize?
And, finally, how can you do it as quickly and
easily as possible?