BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY (OR
OPERANT CONDITIONING)
B.F. Skinner – we can only study what
we can observe
Response-Stimulus-Response model
of learning
Behavior produces an
environmental effect which
affects the likelihood of similar
behavior in the future.
*Behaviors are shaped by the
consequences they produce.
Positive Reinforcement – When stimulus events
have the effect of increasing the probability
that a response will occur again.
Negative Reinforcement – Removing a stimulus,
usually an aversive one, when this removal
makes a specified response more likely
to occur.
Punishment – Presentation of a stimulus that
makes a specified response LESS likely.
The bottom line is: We repeat behaviors which have, in
the past, produced reinforcement, and we shy away from
behaviors which have produced punishment.
Other Important Terms:
Extinction – A decrease in strength of a conditioned
response when it is no longer reinforced.
Shaping – Reinforcing successive approximations to
some final response.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
A person learns through conditioning, but also by
vicarious reinforcement (i.e., observers increase
behavior for which they have seen others
reinforced).
Imitation – A process of: Acquisition, Retention,
Motor Reproduction, Motivation
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
Individuals are viewed as trying to maximize rewards
and minimize costs.
Outcomes = Rewards – Costs
(Rewards include anything positive, desirable.
Costs include anything negative, undesirable.)
STRUCTURAL ROLE THEORY
One of the most reliable sociological findings is that
people’s attitudes and behaviors vary according to the
social position they occupy in the social structure.
This theory would say that people are like actors
following a script (role consensus is assumed).
The Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to discount the role of the
situation in affecting a person’s behavior
and to over-estimate the importance of personal
or dispositional factors.
Why do we commit this error?
A key point of Lovaglia’s: The situation is much more
powerful than we think!
How might a person use this information?
Affirmations
Statements about what is good
and positive for you.
Techniques: writing statements,
verbal statements, visualizing
Can they work?? If so, why?
Social Psychology tells us…
Affirmations are behavior;
we become what we do.
Self-Perception Theory
Just as we observe others’
behavior, we also observe our
own behavior. We infer how we
feel by observing our own behavior.
What is an “attitude”?
A relatively enduring organization of
beliefs around an object or situation.
(Each attitude is really a package
of
beliefs).
How do we acquire attitudes?
Instrumental Conditioning
Modeling
Direct Experience
Genetic Factors
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Overturns the common sense notion that:
Attitudes-------Behavior
“dissonance” – A state of tension produced when elements
are in conflict.
How can we reduce dissonance?
 Selective attention
 Distort reality
 Lower expectations
 Seek support
 CHANGE ATTITUDE
When is dissonance likely?
1.
2.
After making a big decision.
When there is inadequate external justification for behavior.
(“external justification” is situationallydetermined)
e.g., Festinger & Carlsmith study (1957)
The key idea: If we can’t find sufficient external justification for our
behavior, then we attempt to justify internally, by changing our
attitude in the direction of our behavior.
APPLICATIONS?
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
George Herbert Mead
Herbert Blumer coined the term, “symbolic
interactionism”
1.
2.
3.
Blumer’s Propositions:
Human beings act toward things on the basis of the
meanings that things have for them.
These meanings arise out of social interaction.
Social action results from a fitting together of individual
lines of action.
Two Schools of Thought: the Chicago School and the
Iowa School
Symbolic Interactionism
Assumptions:
1. Symbols transfer meaning in human interaction.
2. The individual becomes humanized (socialized)
through interaction with people.
3. Reality is a process.
4. Human beings have the ability to act upon
the environment.
What kind of image do we get of the human actor?
active, creative, shapers of our own reality, goal-seeking
Symbolic Interactionism
Key Terms:
Meaning
Definition of the Situation – One’s cognitive idea
of his/her place in social time and space
that constrains behavior.
Taking the Role of the Other
Application: Labeling
Symbolic Interactionism
Distinction between signs and symbols:
A sign is directly connected to an object
or event and calls forth a fixed or
habitual response.
A symbol is something that people
create and use to stand for
something else. (e.g., object,
gesture, word)
Symbolic Communication & Language
Communication requires 2 things: Speaking & Listening
What do we mean when we say to our interaction
partner: “Are you listening to me?!”
Listening requires our responsive attention.
“pseudo-listening” – We really aren’t paying
attention to what the other person
is saying, although we act as if we are.
What are some listening situations that are difficult?
Symbolic Communication & Language
Two types of meaning:
denotative meaning – The literal, explicit
properties associated with a word.
(The dictionary meaning)
connotative meaning – Cognitive and emotional
responses one has to a word.
(These meanings are personal)
Importance of social context – Who are we with, and
what is the situation?
Symbolic Communication & Language
Nonverbal Communication
paralanguage – All vocal aspects of speech other
than words.
body language – The silent movement of
body parts.
interpersonal spacing – How we position ourselves
at varying distances and angles from others.
choice of personal effects – Choices of clothing, etc.
PERSON PERCEPTION
Data-------------------------Theory
physical behavior
verbal behavior
appearance
dispositional traits
(personality
characteristics)
Biases:
1. Primacy Effect – People rely more heavily on the
first info. they get on a person and tend to discount
later info.
2. Implicit Personality Theory – Network of assumptions people
make about the relationship among traits and behaviors.
3. Stereotypes – Given a group membership, we assume traits
about a person.
ATTRIBUTION
Attribution – The process of inferring the
cause of others’ behavior.
Attribution Theory is concerned with how
people assign causes to events. It is the
study of the way people think about
other people.
2 types of explanations of behavior:
dispositional & situational attributions
Attribution
Biases:
1. Fundamental Attribution Error
2. Actor-Observer Differences – A difference
between two points of view (that of the actor
and the observer).
3. Self-Serving Bias – The tendency we have to
attribute positive outcomes to our own
dispositions and negative outcomes to
situational causes.
4. Self-Defeating Bias – Undesirable behavior is
attributed to negative aspects of the self.
Attribution
Harold Kelley’s Attribution Theory
We use 3 types of information in making decisions
about the causation of action in a situation:
1. Distinctiveness – Observe actor in similar
situations (low distinctiveness implies personal
cause; high distinctiveness implies situational
cause).
2. Consensus – Compare actor’s behavior to others’.
(low consensus implies personal cause;
high consensus implies situational cause)
3. Consistency – Observe actor’s behavior over time.
(low consistency implies situational cause; high
consistency implies personal cause)
Socialization
Socialization is the process by which we acquire
those modes of thinking, acting, and feeling that
enable us to participate in the larger human community.
Agents of Socialization are persons or institutions
which influence our thoughts and behaviors.
Examples?
Reciprocal Socialization – Recognizes that socialization
is not a one-way process; e.g., kids influence adults.
Examples?
Socialization
Developmental psychologist Kenneth Kaye
“frames” – Tools that parents/adults use
to organize time and space for child.
Examples: nurturant, protective,
instrumental, feedback,
discourse
Socialization is like an apprenticeship (i.e., it is
a process; it is relational).
Socialization
Social Learning Theory
Socialization is accomplished through
two processes:
1. Direct Learning – We are first
socialized via our parents’ rewards
and punishments (i.e., external
reinforcement). Over time, we control our
own behavior through self-reinforcement
(internalization makes this possible).
2. Observation/Modeling
Socialization
Piaget – Cognitive Developmental Theory
Socialization is a process by which the individual
develops from simple to complex. 4 stages:
1. Sensorimotor
object permanence, cause-effect,
recognitory schemes
2. Pre-Operational
knowledge of symbols
3. Concrete Operational
concrete operations such as conservation
and serialization
4. Formal Operational
abstract thought
Socialization
Developmental psychologist Erik Erikson
8 Psychosocial Stages:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
8. Integrity vs. Despair
Socialization
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
1. The Pre-Moral Period
2. Heteronomous Morality – Strong respect for
rules. Child is likely to judge the
naughtiness of an act by its objective
consequences rather than the actor’s
intent.
3. Autonomous Morality – Rules are viewed as
arbitrary agreements that can be
challenged.
Socialization
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development – 3 levels:
1. Pre-conventional – Oriented to personal needs.
2. Conventional – Oriented to social rules.
3. Post-Conventional – Oriented toward making
autonomous decisions.
These developmental models feature stages that are
step-wise and sequential – i.e., people go through the
stages one after another. But…might individuals
regress in their morality? Also, might one’s actual
behavior fail to correspond to his/her moral judgments?
SELF
Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self
The process through which we develop our sense
of self based upon the reactions of other people
to our actions.
G.H. Mead’s Stages to Becoming a Self:
1. The Play Stage
2. The Game Stage
3. The Generalized Other
Two aspects of the self: “I” and “Me”
SELF
self-concept: The sum total of beliefs you have
about yourself.
self-esteem: The evaluative component of the
self-concept.
situated self: The subset of self-concepts that
constitutes the self we know in a particular
situation.
self-monitoring: Extent to which people use information
about the environment as a basis for modifying
behavior.
SELF
mutable self: A self-concept that is highly
adaptive to rapid social and cultural change.
DOES OUR FAST-PACED SOCIETY REQUIRE THAT
EACH OF US HAVE A MUTABLE SELF?
DOES HAVING A MUTABLE SELF THREATEN
THE SENSE OF HAVING A CORE, STABLE SELF?
DO INDIVIDUALS EVER COMPLETELY CHANGE WHO
THEY ARE?
SELF
Identity Salience
Our identities are organized hierarchically based
on salience. Implications?
1. The higher the salience of an identity,
the more often we will try to draw
on that identity.
2. If a given identity is defined as highly
important, we will be more inclined
to develop it.
3. Highly salient identities can carry over.
SELF
Aaron Beck’s concept of “personal domain” –
Inclusive notion of what a person’s self consists
of; everything that you care about and that is
important for you to maintain. e.g.,
self-concept
personal goals/motives
moral rules/principles
possessions
significant others
groups that have symbolic significance
GENDER ROLE SOCIALIZATION
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory – The key is the
process of identification.
Social Learning Theory – Imitation, reinforcement.
Cognitive Development Theory – Gender is an
organizing scheme for the developing child.
Symbolic Interactionism – “doing gender” refers
to seeing gender as an activity accomplished
through social interaction.
Depression
Characterized by the “cognitive triad” (Aaron Beck, MD)
a negative conception of self
a negative interpretation of life experiences
a fatalistic view of the future
The depressed person engages in “selective abstraction”
– overinterpreting daily events in terms of loss.
Cognitive Therapy and Depression
What we consciously think is what mainly
determines how we feel. 5 tactics:
1. Learn to recognize automatic thoughts (ATs).
2. Learn to dispute the ATs by marshaling contrary
evidence.
3. Learn to make different attributions (reattributions)
and use them to dispute your ATs.
4. Learn how to distract yourself from depressing
thoughts.
5. Learn to recognize and question assumptions that
govern much of what you do.
For Discussion:
WHY DOES COGNITIVE THERAPY WORK?
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION – IS
DEPRESSION CONTAGIOUS?
Attributional style of depressed person: He/she
attributes bad events to causes that are internal, stable,
and global. Good results are believed to result from
situational, unstable, and specific causes (e.g., luck).
Attributional style of ‘non-depressed” person: He/she
takes a bright view of good events, attributing them to
internal, stable, global causes, and also a bright view of
bad events, attributing them to situational, unstable,
specific causes.
Do those who are depressed take an unrealistically dark
view? OR, do the non-depressed take an unrealistically
bright view?
Consider the studies by Alloy and Abramson in the
1970s -- People who are not depressed distort reality,
while those who are depressed judge reality more
accurately. Non-depressed subjects had an “illusion of
control”
Applications of this knowledge…
Langer and Rodin’s study of residents in a nursing home
– residents who were given increased control over their
lives were more active, sociable, and vigorous than
those who were not given increased control.
Other applications?
Optimism and Illusion
Martin Seligman’s theory of learned helplessness
says that when people see that how they respond
has no effect on a problem, they learn not to
respond to problems in their lives.
Seligman distinguishes between a pessimistic and
an optimistic attributional style:
Pessimistic: permanence, stability, self-blame
(these factors lead to helplessness)
3 Crucial Dimensions to your attributional style:
1. Permanence (permanent vs. temporary)
2. Pervasiveness (universal vs. specific)
3. Personalization (internal vs. external)
Good Outcome – the optimist attributes this
internally and stable; the pessimist attributes this
externally, unstable.
Bad Outcome – the optimist attributes this
externally, unstable; the pessimist attributes this
internally, stable.
For Discussion:
HOW IS SELF-FOCUSED ATTENTION RELATED
TO DEPRESSION?
HOW CAN WE FOCUS ATTENTION OUTSIDE
OURSELVES?
Influence
How can we influence
others?
* Smile at people
* Physical Attractiveness
(this is a “central trait”)
* Apologize when you
offend someone
* Self-Disclosure
* Impression
Management
Impression Management
This approach comes from Erving Goffman. It is also
known as “self-presentation theory” or “dramaturgical
approach.”
Front Stage – Where we try to manage our impressions.
Back Stage - Where we plan.
Use of props – Just as in theater, we use objects in
our environment.
Impression Management
Self-Presentation Strategies:
* Intimidation
* Supplication
* Self-Promotion
* Ingratiation
What happens if we fail in our presentation of self?
We feel embarrassed.
We help one another save face.
Impression Management
Another motive for impression management:
self-construction (i.e., constructing a public image
that is congruent with one’s ideal self)
In our efforts to maintain a positive image, consider the
importance of “definition of the situation”.
We attempt to align our definitions and actions with one
another. We may use techniques, such as:
“disclaimers” and “accounts”
Ethnomethodology – The study of the everyday,
common-sense understandings that people have of the
world around them. (Harold Garfinkel)
“breaching experiments” – Disrupt normal
procedures.
Why do people get so upset when apparently
minor conventions of talk are not followed?
Why study the common place?
Garfinkel’s “etcetera principle” – We use certain words or
phrases in interaction to gloss over possible disruptions
or misunderstandings – e.g., “you know,” “and so on”.
Other examples?
“Playing the Game” – Conversing with others about
topics even though you do not have any expertise in the
area.
When can this be dangerous?
What if we were to refrain from playing the game?
What we bring to a social gathering (consider how these
things affect our presentation of self)
CLOTHES
SPEECH
BODY
COMPANION
Persuasion
In what ways are people “victims” of persuasion
every day? (i.e., what are the sources of persuasion?)
Are you and I susceptive to persuasion?
“the third person effect of communication” – When
exposed to an advertisement or some other form of
persuasive communication, we commonly think that it
has a greater effect on others than on ourselves.
Persuasion
What are the factors that make a person persuasive?
* Credibility
* Attractiveness
* Content of message
* Maintaining a positive mood
* Leading questions
* High status
Persuasion
FOR DISCUSSION:
Is the target of persuasion passive or active?
Why are mass media models so persuasive?
What are some socializing aspects of television?
Persuasion
Choose a politician who is currently campaigning. Discuss
his/her campaign persuasion strategies. Do the
strategies seem to be effective?
Give an example of a current advertising campaign that is
directed at members of your generation. What
techniques are used? How successful do you think the
campaign is?
Discuss a highly visible, ongoing advertising campaign for
a product. What are the persuasive techniques used?
Has the campaign been successful?
Persuasion
The Persuaders (PBS Frontline Program, 2004)
Consider the ubiquity of advertising – people trying to figure out how
to persuade us what to buy, whom to trust, what to think.
What impact is this having on us?
The Persuaders program explores the idea that Americans are
seeking and finding a sort of identity in buying/joining a brand.
What is this about?
Is advertising a business or an art form?
How do you feel while eating white bread?!
Structural Role Theory
Role is seen as the set of expectations that society
places on an individual.
Role consensus is assumed.
How does the interactionist perspective differ?
Role is seen as something that is constantly
negotiated between individuals.
Secord & Backman - Negotiated Role Theory
>> Roles emerge out of an interactional process.
>> Rather than following rules, people are assumed to
follow goals.
When is role negotiation an especially important
determinant of role behavior?
* Limits of role are broad
* Role expectations held by actors are not in agreement
* Actor’s characteristics preclude performing role in
usual way
* Situational demands interfere
* Other roles intrude upon performance
* Actor and role partner have relatively equal power
Role-Taking – An imaginative process in which we
evaluate ourselves and our actions from the
standpoint of others.
How do we acquire role-taking abilities?
1. Social experiences
2. Conventionality of identities and performances
3. Familiarity
Role-Making – Constructing a role performance that
fits with the definition of the situation while also
remaining attuned to personal goals and inclinations.
What is required in role-making?
>> self-consciousness (i.e., knowing who you are and
in what situation you are operating)
>> role-taking
A Challenge: Role Making in Role Exits
What happens when we find ourselves exiting from
certain roles? We must disengage from the
expectations and self-perceptions with the role.
EXAMPLES?
Emotional Aspects of Interaction
Arlie Hochschild
feeling rules – Prescriptions for how we ought to feel
in given situations.
emotion work – Attempts to change, in degree or
quality, an emotion or feeling (surface acting or
deep acting).
Techniques of emotion work: cognitive, bodily,
expressive
Emotions and Role Attachments
Role Embracement – Identifying strongly with a role
and allowing it to shape how we think, feel, act,
and interact with others.
Role Distance – Performing role in a detached way;
our sense of self is not invested in the role.