CHAPTER 11
WRITTEN LITERACY REQUIRES
STUDENTS TO THINK
PLANNING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION FOR STUDENT WITH
LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR AND PROBLEMS
REBECCA B. EVERS /SUE S. SPENCER
Presented by
Adesuwa Jakpa ,Kreshonda Bonner
&
Samantha Evans
Prevalence of writing problems.
 The writing skills of 8 th – 12th grade in most
racial and ethnic groups have improved
compared to earlier assessment in 1998 and
2002.(NEAP,2007)
 Students with disabilities have upward trend in
scale scores since 1998 with average gains in
writing scores for students with disabilities
in the 8th- 12th grade outpacing those
students without disabilities from 2002 to
2007 . (NAEP ,2007)
 Data indicates students with disabilities are
showing improvement in writing, but continue
to score much lower than their non disabled
peers.(NEAP ,2007)
 Overall students writing have remained
relatively stagnant overtime ,with only
modest increase being reported over time in
either reading or writing (Applebee, Arthur&
Langer,2006; Tachibana ,2008)
Reasons for writing problems
Information Processing Problems
 This affects the ability of how an individual’s
brain stores, retrieves, coordinate and
manipulates information.
Phonological Awareness
 Inability to understand that words can be
broken into smaller parts of speech,(phoneme)
which are used to build words for oral and
writing language, may cause student
Exceptionality
 Most Individuals with disabilities , experience
difficulty with written language.
Higher-order Linguistic knowledge
The Lack of phonological awareness ,and the
brains inability to process large amount of
information to produce written or spoken
language.
Characteristics of students with
written Expression Difficulty
These writing problems are grouped into three
broad categories :
Knowledge Difficulties:
Limited knowledge of relevant vocabulary.
Unable to use knowledge of words and proper
sentence structures(e.g. Phonology,
morphology and syntax)
Limited background knowledge on given topic
or difficulty with existing topic knowledge.
Knowledge Difficulties
Limited knowledge of genre- specific text
structures (e.g., setting, plots elements in a
narrative)
Poor declarative, procedural and conditional
strategy knowledge. e.g., (metacognitivly
unaware of the need to plan for writing,
including goal setting, strategy use ,
monitoring and modifying when beneficial).
Unaware of the audience for whom they are
writing or the intended function of their
writing.
SKILL Difficulties
Poor spelling ,handwriting and punctuations
Difficulty re-checking , revising writing and
may focus on the not so important part of
writing.(e.g. , Handwriting, spelling and
grammar)
Lack of self-regulatory skills may be
challenging control thought, attention and
actions during the writing process.
Motivation Difficulties
Learners may relate a lack of academic
achievement to various reasons which may
include limited intelligence,
Learners may erroneously relate academic
achievement to certain factors such as task
ease or teacher assistance.
Students lose interest , and experience low
self- efficacy, learned helplessness, and lack
of enthusiasm ,due to continued failure.
Written language assessment
The following principles should guide
assessment in written language.
 Gathering assessment data over time from a
variety of sources to increase its validity.
Select assessment that target specific areas of
concern.
 Assessment and task must match students age.
Assessment
should be based on classroom
instructions,
Formal tests of written expression
Test of Written Expression -(TOWE)
It is used to evaluate students writing skills in
grammar,vocabulary,syntax,story and sentence
construction
It is administered to individual ages 6-14 year
Test of Early Written Language, 2ndedition
(TEWL)
 It is used to measure early reading ablity,such
as writing skills in capitalization, spelling and
general understanding of writing
 It is administered to students ages 3-10year
Test of Written Language, 3 rd edition (TOWL -3)
 It measures contrived and spontaneous written
language
 It is can administered to individuals ages 7-17
Writing Process Test (WPT)
 It assesses students written products and
process, which include how students plan,
write and revise and original composition.
 It can be administered to individuals ages 8-19
Wide Range Achievement Test 4 th edition (WRAT-4)
 It is used as a screening test for deficits in
spelling
 It is an individually administered test and can
be used for individuals between ages 5-9.5
years.
Informal Tests of Written Expression
 Portfolio Assessment
A collection of self –produced written works
of the student, which include
notes,diagrams,drafts etc.
 Questioning
 Observation
 One on one Interviews
Strategies used for Informal Tests
of Written Expression
Bloom taxonomy is used to measure competence and
construct assessment at all levels.
Knowledge/Remembering Level: To determine, if
student can recall basic information and facts.
Using word such as define,duplicate,list,recall.
Assessment Activity :Have students write a
paragraph ,identifying the main characters of a
book.
Comprehension/Understanding Level: To
determine ,if students can explain an idea or
concept, using verbs as such classify, describe
,discuss.
Assessment Activity: Have students write a report
,describing relevant events from a field trip to
museum.
Strategies used in Informal Tests of
Written Expression.
 Application/Applying Level: To determine ,if student
can apply information in a new way, using words
such as: use,choose,demostrate, interpret .
 Assessment Activity : Have students to write a
report in which they rewrite the story using
literary convention used in today’s lesson.
 Analysis/Analyzing level: To determine, if a student
can distinguish between relationships and
different parts, with verbs such
differentiate,discriminate,examine,experiment.
 Assessment Activity: Have students write a mock
newspaper editorial in which they compare and
contrast the presidency of Abraham Lincoln to
that of the presidency of Bill Clinton
Strategies used for Informal tests
of Written Expression
 Synthesis/Evaluating Level: the goal at this
level is to determine if students can make and
justify decision .Using these verbs to
construct an assessment, defend argue ,judge,
appraise, evaluate.
Assessment Activity: To assess students ability
at this level, have students write a journal
entry and evaluate the effectiveness of a study
strategy for the last exams.
Evaluating/Creating Level: At this level ,the
purpose is to determine if students can
generate a new product or a point of view
.Using these verbs to construct an assessment :
assemble, construct,create,desig n
Assessment Activity : Have students create a
poem from vocabulary words from the story.
Strategies used for Informal tests
of Written Expression
Rubric: used for the analysis of a students
written product or process. However rubric
consist of two forms :
 Holistic Scoring Rubric : it is based on the
overall judgment of writing ability of a
student. each level defines the characteristic
of a response that would receive the
respective score.
 Analytic Scoring Rubric: It is used to identify
and assess specific components of a finished
product.
Instructional Assessment and
Methodological Decision Making
To plan effective instructions, and determine where
barriers exist in lessons before been taught. The
LEARNS Strategy for planning UDL lesson uses six
steps :
 Learning goals: Determine what content will be
taught
 Note teacher Expectations for lesson objective
 Area of strength and need for each student are
noted.
 Review and determine barriers.
 Note accommodation needed
 Specify individual accommodations needed for
specific students
Applying the Learns Strategy to
Writing Assignments
 Step 1: Identify a learning goal for the lesson
you plan to teach.
 Step 2: Specify expectations for the lesson.
 Step 3: Determine the areas of strength and
need for each student.
 Step 4: Review and compare the required tasks
(Step 2) with possible areas of need (Step 3)
and determine potential barriers in the lesson.
 Step 5: Note methods and materials that will
remove barriers to learning.
 Step 6: Specify individualized instruction for
students with special needs.
Effective Writing Instruction (Historical
Perspective)
The traditional model of writing instruction was
a product-oriented approach in which mechanics
and grammar are emphasized over content and
process. Product-oriented writing instruction
gives limited attention or time to activities
requiring sustained writing. Students are often
expected to learn to write in isolation.
In contrast, an alternative instructional model
for teaching writing began to emerge in the
1960s. This model was known as processoriented. This method was three-stage model was
adopted by most involved a linear prewriting,
writing, and rewriting format. This approach had
minimal impact in student writing.
Teaching Learning Strategies
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Begin by securing a commitment to using
learning strategies.
Determine where students are having
difficulty with the curriculum.
Select the learning strategy most
appropriate for the job.
Provide a rationale for why they should
learn the strategy.
Describe the strategy and model how to use
it.
Provide opportunities for guided practice.
During independent practice, the teacher
continues to monitor student performance.
Last, teach for generalization by indicating
how student success is directly related to
using the correct strategy for the job.
The Optimal Learning Environment
(OLE) program for English Language
learners (ELL)
 Principle 1: Connect students’ background knowledge
by tying instruction to home and community.
 Principle 2: Foster the use of students’ primary
language in literacy lessons. Allow students to
exercise a choice of language with text and during
literacy events.
 Principle 3: Create opportunities for students to
meaningfully and authentically apply their developing
oral language and literacy skills.
 Principle 4: Foster increased levels of interaction
(oral language, reading, and writing) among students
and teachers.
 Principle 5: Engage students through dialogue,
especially instructional conversational. ELL programs
place a great deal of emphasis on developing
communication competence.
Strategies for ELL Learners
 The OLE program utilizes interactive
journaling for this purpose. This
instructional strategy enacts several
principles of effective instruction, in that
when writing in their interactive journals,
students communicate with either teachers or
peers on the topic of choice.
 Principle 1: Use the language of their choice
 Principle 2: Exchange messages with real
communicative with a real audience
 Principle 3: Facilitate learning through
collaborative dialogue with teacher and peers
for authentic purposes .
References
Evers, R., Spencer, S. (2011) Planning Effective
Instruction for Students With Learning and Behavior
Problems. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Pears on
Education