Process Approaches in
ESL/EFL Writing
Instruction
Susser, B. (1994)
Journal of Second Language Writing
Presenter: Betty Hsu
Debate on “Process”

“Process” has been an important and
sometimes contentious concept in both L1
and L2 writing instruction



advocates: Rediscovery of process in writing is
the most exciting development…
Opponents: process as a hazard, chimera…
Reason for the contention:


lack of consensus on theory and practice
Confusion of the definition: “The language used
to describe the writing process almost invites
misunderstanding.”(Newkirk1990)
Purpose of this article

To resolve the debate by
1.
2.
Defining “process approaches” to
writing instruction
Examining their place in ESL/EFL
writing pedagogy
Outline

Writing Processes and Process
Pedagogies



ESL/EFL Process Writing


Three Meanings of Process
Process Writing Pedagogies
Process in ESL/EFL Writing Instruction
Conclusion: Process Prospects and
Problems
Three Meaning of Process

The term “Process” has been used in 3 different ways:
1.
To mean the act of writing itself
The term is used as synonym of writing, the
writing process, composing and so on
2.
To describe writing pedagogies
The term is used as a shorthand for a variety of
writing pedagogies, such as “process-centered
theory of teaching writing”, “process-centered
approaches to writing instruction”…
Reasons for confusion: 1. process pedagogies were associated with
several writing theories 2. process pedagogies were not bound
to any particular writing theory3.the gap between educational
theory and educational practice. Process teaching was reduced
to a set of rules and stages which violates its recursive nature
and distorts a responsive pedagogy into a didactic one.
3.
To designate theories of writing
The main reason for this confusion is that process has been used incorrectly to
refer to theories of writing. (For example: Hairston(1982) refers to process as a
new paradigm. Faigly (1986) specifically mentioned “process theory and
pedagogy)
Process is not a theory of writing


According to Berlin(1987), process is a component
of most twentieth century writing theories
Categories of writing theories grouped by Berlin
Objective
Locate reality in the Behavioral rhetoric uses
material, external
some elements of
world
process writing
Subjective
Locate truth in the
subject
Transactional Place reality at the
The expressionist
emphasizes process
writing
The rhetoric of pubic
point where subject discourse emphasizes
and object interact teaching the entire
process of writing
Process is not a theory of writing
Phelps(1988):
what I call “process theory” is
not really a theory at all, but the common
ground among many theories…”
Fulkerson(1990):
pedagogy is only one
element of a theory, and the process
approach but one example of a pedagogy.
Process as one example
of a pedagogy
pedagogy
Theory
Process is the common
ground among many
theories.
Process Writing Pedagogies



1.
2.
Process writing pedagogies arose as a
reaction against product-oriented
pedagogies.
What’s wrong with product pedagogies:
the English course based on rhetorical forms,
grammar exercises, and weekly assignments that
pass in silence form students to teacher and back
again-as in a sad little factory that produces only
seconds” (Bogel & Hjorshoj, 1988)
Two essential components:
Awareness
Intervention
Process Writing Awareness



Process writing is to make students aware that
writing is often a process of discovery in which
ideas are generated and not just transcribed.
Students should become aware that writing by
its nature is a process, so that even simple
messages are the result of a writing process
that includes choosing vocabulary considering
audience, and judging format.
Students who are aware of writing processes
can then choose the process that suits their
writing style and the particular writing task
they face.
Process Writing Intervention



Flower and Hayes (1981) from a cognitive
perspective see writing as a “complex problemsolving process”. This viewpoint provides a
useful orientation to writing instruction. It could
enable teachers to intervene at point in the
writing process…
Zamel(1983): “Intervening throughout the
process sets up a dynamic relationship which
gives writers the opportunity to tell their
readers what they mean to say before these
writers are told what they ought to have done .”
Liebman-Kleine(1987): “If processes differ, then
the role of process teacher is not to impose a
process, but to perceive their students’
differences and then assess each one’s
particular needs.”
Process Writing Intervention
The role of process-writing teachers
 Procedure: Use procedures designed to
help students think through and organize
their ideas before writing and to rethink
and revise their initial drafts.
 Methods: brainstorming, freewriting,
journal writing, small group activities,
teacher-student conferences, peer
critiquing, revising, editing only the final
draft and some form of publishing.
 Goal: to internalize this intervention while
writing and revising
Process in ESL/EFL Writing Instruction
Year Teaching Methods
Writing Instruction
60s
Audiolingual/ habit Grammar
forming/preventing instruction/rhetoricla devices
errors
grammar correction &
controlled composition
(beginning and inter-writers)
Current-traditional
(advanced writers)
70s
Zamel(1976) made the first major call for the
application of L1 composition research to ESL
composition-expressive and creative process of
writing
Kroll (1978):the first explicit discussion in the
ESL literature of L1 process writing pedagogies
Process in ESL/EFL Writing Instruction




Taylor(1981) published the first full discussion
of L1 process research and pedagogy in the
ESL literature.
The 1980s saw the gradual introduction of
process writing pedagogies into the ESL/EFL
profession. Raimes and Zamel were among the
strongest voices calling for process writing.
The introduction of process to ESL/EFL writing
instruction in the 1980s also encountered
opposition arouse form misunderstandings.
By the late 1980s process writing pedagogies
had reached the mainstream of ESL Writing
instruction
Process in ESL/EFL Writing Instruction
Debates on process
Barnes(1983) criticized the
process for ignoring the
product and assumed
process lead to personal
narratives or ruminative
essays
Zamel(1983)argued that
her students were writing
academic essays and term
papers and has specifically
rejected personal topics.
Zamel(1983)made the
expressionist point that
writing is a process of
discovering and making
meaning. Writing process
is recursive, nonlinear and
convoluted.
Reid(1984) attacked
Zamel’s view of process,
claiming process only good
for advanced, creative
writing.
Process in ESL/EFL Writing Instruction
Advocates for process writing
Mckay(‘82)
Spack (’84)
Krashen(’84)
John(’86)
Reid(’89)
Keh(’90)
Hedge(’88)
Focus on prewriting strategies
Argue for teaching invention techniques
Stress feedback is useful during writing
Emphasis on rewriting on selfmonitoring and peer critiques
Emphasis on intervention for academic
writing tasks
Advocate discussion of feedback
“Writing” was the first book-length
teacher’s manual to adopt a full-fledged
process pedagogy
Conclusion: Process Prospects


Providing unifying principles: Process
writing pedagogies can be used with
various theories, are applicable to
academic and personal writing, are
concerned with final products as well as
students’ writing processes
Providing learners with opportunities to
become aware of their learning and
allowing teachers occasions to intervene
constructively
Conclusion: Process Problems

Problems on the level of practice


Several ethnographic studies hav shown that even
writing teachers who have been trained in process
writing tend to violate process writing principles in
practice, sending conflicting signals to their students
about what they expect.
Problems on teacher education (on
writing instruction)

Intervention, which should be concerned with
the making or expression of meaning, becomes
confused with correction of mechanical errors
on the sentence level. ESL composition turns
to emphasize more assessment than pedagogy,
more product than the process.
Conclusion: Process Problems



There is no theoretical conflict in process
pedagogies, but the problem is how to
offer a consistent pedagogy that will not
send mixed signals to learners.
Language teachers have to face the
dilemma to deal with their students’
grammar problems and unfamiliarity with
academic discourse
It is suggested that teachers respond to
student writing as they do to literature
with the assumption: no one does it
wrong.
Questions for discussion



1. How do you design a process writing
task to help your students engage
themselves in English writing class?
What’s the procedure of such a task?
2.How can we avoid correcting too much
as it is conflicting with the process-writing
principles?
3.Is peer-editing helpful in teaching
writing? What’s the potential problems?