A Guide to Constructing Argument in Written Forms
Persuasion vs. Argument

Persuasion and argument are often used
interchangeably, but they are not necessarily
the same.

Persuasion is a broad term, which includes
many tactics designed to move people to a
position, a belief, or a course of action

Argument is a specific kind of persuasion
based on the principles of logic and reasoning
What is ARGUMENT?
EXPRESSING A
POINT OF VIEW ON
A SUBJECT AND
SUPPORTING IT
WITH EVIDENCE
The Nature of Argument
Most material you learn is or has been
debated by someone, somewhere, at
some time.
 Even when the material you read or
hear is presented as simple “fact,” it may
actually be one person’s interpretation of
a set of information.
 Human knowledge grows out of such
differences of opinion

EXAMPLE OF HOW ARGUMENT
CAN CHANGE “FACT”

For nearly 2000 years, educated people in many
Western cultures believed that bloodletting—
deliberately causing a sick person to lose blood—
was the most effective treatment for a variety of
illnesses. The “fact” that bloodletting is beneficial to
human health was not widely questioned until the
1800′s, and some physicians continued to
recommend bloodletting as late as the 1920′s. We
have come to accept a different set of “facts” now
because some people began to doubt the
effectiveness of bloodletting; these people argued
against it and provided convincing evidence.
Why is learning to argue
effectively important to you?
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Because good arguments can influence people to
your advantage
Because you must be able to recognize when
effective argument is being used to influence you
Because most of the decisions you will have to
make in your life will depend on the effectiveness
of the argument—whether with your self or others
Because you will use techniques of effective
argument in college or tech school, in the
workplace, in your family, and within society at
large
The Importance of
Argument and Persuasion

In everyday life…
Appealing a grade, asking for a raise, applying for a
job, negotiating the price of a new car, arguing in
traffic court

In academic life…
Defending your ideas, engaging intellectual debate

On the job…
Getting people to listen to your ideas, winning buy-in,
getting your boss to notice, getting cooperation,
moving people to action

In writing…
Irrefutably making your point, writing to be read

In reading and listening…
Critically evaluating other’s arguments, protecting
yourself from unethical persuasive tactics, recognizing
faulty reasoning when you see it.
What exactly is an Argument?

An argument involves the process of
establishing a claim and then proving it
with the use of evidence, logical
reasoning, examples, and research.
The Essential Ingredients
of an Argument
An issue open to debate
 Your position on the issue
 Your reasons for that position
 Evidence to support your reason

 Experience, expert opinion, research and
statistics
What is a CLAIM?
 Definition:
A claim states your
position on the issue you have
chosen to write about.
 It is stated in your THESIS
STATEMENT and usually
placed at the end of your
introduction.

A GOOD CLAIM IS…
Not overly vague. You must be clear
about what you are going to argue and
why.
 Logical; it comes considering the
evidence-what you agree with and what
you don’t
 Debatable Claims that are purely
factual and claims that are only opinion
fail this requirement.
 Is not just a simple sentence. It usually
will contain subordinating elements

Evidence and Data
Evidence which you cite is used to
support your claim. Like a lawyer
presenting evidence to a jury, you must
support your claim with facts;
 an unsupported claim is merely an
assertion.
 A CLAIM must have a WARRANT
behind it, which connects your
EVIDENCE AND DATA to your claim.

WARRANT
HOW YOU USE AND CONNECT YOUR DATA AND
EVIDENCE TO YOUR CLAIM IS CALLED THE
WARRANT.
 Definition: the warrant interprets the data and
evidence, and then shows how it supports your
claim.
 The warrant, in other words, explains why the
data or evidence proves the claim. (In trials,
lawyers for opposing sides often agree on the
data but hotly dispute the warrants.)
Example of a Warrant:

CLAIM: IT MUST HAVE RAINED LAST NIGHT.
 EVIDENCE: The streets are wet.
 EVIDENCE: The streets were dry when we went to bed



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
last night.
EVIDENCE: The skies were cloudy yesterday.
EVIDENCE: There was not a flood and the town did not
open a fire hydrant.
EVIDENCE: There was no water leak in town.
DATA: There was a ninety percent chance or rain for last
night.
DATA: We received 0 inches of rain yesterday.
A WARRANT MUST BE:
VALID-IT
MUST BE ABLE
TO BE PROVEN WITH
EVIDENCE
LOGICAL-IT MUST MAKE
SENSE
BE MEANINGFUL
The Thesis Statement/CLAIM
…is the most important sentence in your paper
…is a CLAIM THAT CONTAINS SOME HINT AT THE
WARRANT
…answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?”
...brings focus to the entire essay
…lets the reader know the main idea of the paper
…is not a factual statement or an announcement of
purpose, but a claim that has to be proven
throughout the paper.
Which THESIS STATEMENT/CLAIM is
the best and why?

Parents, often too busy to watch television shows
with their families, can monitor their children’s
viewing habits with the aid of the V-chip.

To help parents monitor their children’s viewing
habits, the V-chip should be a required feature for
television sets sold in the U.S.

This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the
uses of the V-chip in American-made television
sets.
Offering a Counterargument

Addressing the opposition demonstrates
your credibility as a writer

It shows that you have researched
multiple sides of the argument and have
come to an informed decision

Remember, keep a balanced tone when
attempting to debunk the opposition
The Role of Your Audience

Understanding your audience is key to effective writing of all
kinds, especially persuasive writing

An argument is an implicit dialogue or exchange with your
audience, so in writing arguments, assume there is a reader
that will not agree with you

Audience awareness is absolutely essential to successful
persuasion and argument; therefore…

Know your audience




What is their position on the issue?
How strongly do they feel about it?
Are they open-minded enough to consider other views?
What will their objections be to your argument?
Using a Reasonable Tone

Shows you are fair-minded and therefore
adds to your credibility

When you acknowledge the opposition with
balanced language, it shows that your
respect the opposing views

No matter how passionate you are about
the issue, don’t resort to careless, harsh
words; this would show more about your
than the issue
Counter-arguing Effectively

Conceding to some of your opposition’s
concerns can demonstrate respect for
their opinions

Remain tactful yet firm
 using rude or deprecating language can
cause your audience to reject your position
without carefully considering your claims
RESEARCH STEP ONE: Document
Your Source

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Author
Title
Journal/ Magazine/Webpage
Place of publication
Publisher/Website
Copyright date/Date published
Date Accessed (if Web source)
Medium (Print, Web, Audio, Video,
Interview, etc.)
Step Two: Read and Annotate
the Text

One way to do this is to use three colors
of highlighters to do the following, like…
 BLUE=EVIDENCE-SAY--FACTUAL
INFORMATION(cannot be disputed)
 YELLOW=MEAN-author or speaker’s CLAIMS
 GREEN=MATTER—highlight author or
speaker’s WARRANTS (Why the evidence
supports claims or why the claims matter or
what they mean to the general argument)
ANOTHER Way to
Analyze/Annotate Text

Use a PMI CHART:
PLUS
MINUS
INFORMATION
How to Analyze an Argument
LOOK AT THE EVIDENCE:
This is your starting point. You look at
evidence and make some type of
assumption that is FACTUAL.
EXAMPLE:
Last year, there were over 500 incidences
of concussions to players in high school
football games.
1.
STEP TWO:
2. LOOK FOR YOUR WARRANT :
Look for the answers to questions such as,
“WHAT ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT?”
“WHAT ARE YOU TELLING ME THAT
FOR?”
“SO WHAT?”
STEP THREE:
3. MAKE YOUR CLAIM:(BASED ON YOUR
EVIDENCE)
THIS IS WHERE YOU…

DECIDE WHAT YOU THINK
 STATE YOUR POSITION
 GIVE SOME REASON WHY YOU
DECIDED AS YOU DID
 MAKE YOUR CLAIM CLEAR TO THE
READER
Step Four: GATHER EVIDENCE
Use a graphic organizer to record your
findings
 Annotate in the margins of your own
book or paper
 Ask yourself questions and record these
as well

Step FIVE: PLAN/STRUCTURE
YOUR ESSAY
Use
a GRAPHIC
ORGANIZER
Create an OUTLINE
THEN BEGIN WRITING YOUR FIRST
DRAFT
From Beginning to End
Structure of a Classical
Argument




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
Introduction
Thesis Statement (CLAIM)
Background Information
Reasons and Evidence
The Opposing View and the
Refutation
Conclusions
BASICALLY, YOUR ESSAY WILL BE
BUILT LIKE THIS:
Introduction: Tell them what you’re
going to tell them.
Body: Tell them.
Conclusion: Tell them what you told
them
THE INTRODUCTION
• acquaints the reader with the topic and
purpose of the paper.
• offers a plan for the ensuing argument
• ENDS WITH YOUR CLAIM/THESIS
STATEMENT
Methods of Composing Your
Introduction

Anecdote: Tell a little story

Example: Real or hypothetical

Ask a Question: Not a stupid or obvious one

Quotation: Use a quotation from your sources or by a
famous person with citation

Statistics: These are numbers and must be real with
citation

Describe a striking image
Body paragraphs:
(1)build upon the claims made in the introductory
paragraph(s)
(2)are organized with the use of topic sentences
that illustrate the main idea of each paragraph.
• Tip: Offering a brief explanation of the
history or recent developments of a topic
within the introduction or early body
paragraphs can help the audience become
familiarized with your topic and the
Paragraphs may be ordered
in several ways, depending
upon the topic and purpose
of your argument:
General
Most
important
Weakest claim
Specific
Least
important
Stronges
t claim
INTRODUCE THE QUOTE
THE QUOTE
EXPLAIN THE QUOTE
THE QUOTATION SANDWICH
INTRODUCE THE QUOTE
Templates for Introducing
Quotes:
X states, “______________”
According to X, “__________”
In the article, X maintains that
“________________”
THE QUOTE ITSELF
In X’s view, “___________”
X agrees when he writes,
“_____________”
WHAT THE QUOTE
MEANS
X disagrees when she writes,
“_________________”
Use verbs such as: states,
asserts, complains,
EXAMPLE:
INTRODUCES THE QUOTE
Dr. Myron Allen, in the article “Where Have
All the Tigers Gone?,” states that “there
are currently (in 2015) only about 3,000
THE
tigers living in the wild at this time.”
COPIED
If this number is correct, then how many QUOTE
will be left on our planet in ten years or
THE
twenty? We may well see
EXPLANATION
OF THE
the demise of wild tigers on earth
QUOTE’S
IMPORTANCE
within our lifetimes.
uote
INTEGRATED QUOTES IN ESSAYS
COPIED QUOTE:
“73% of children working
in the tobacco
fields…say they suffer
Quote
from nausea, headaches,
respiratory conditions,
or other symptons.”
INTEGRATED QUOTE:
Some people claim that farm
work does not harm children.
Introduction
However, today’s corporate farms to the quote
have much different working
conditions than the family farms of
yesteryear had. Today, in the new
business of farming tobacco, “73% of
children working in the tobacco
fields…suffer from nausea,
headaches, respiratory conditions,
or other symptons” (Potenza 9).
Working on these types of farms
hardly seems harmless now.
Explanation
of quote