Lingzhi mushroom
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Ganoderma lucidum
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Phylum:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Agaricomycetes
Order:
Polyporales
Family:
Ganodermataceae
Genus:
Ganoderma
Species:
G. lucidum
Binomial name
Ganoderma lucidum
(Curtis) P. Karst
The lingzhi mushroom or reishi mushroom (traditional Chinese: 靈芝; pinyin: língzhī;
Japanese: reishi; Vietnamese: linh chi; literally: "supernatural mushroom") encompasses
several fungal species of the genus Ganoderma, and most commonly refers to the closely
related species, Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae. G. lucidum enjoys special
veneration in East Asia, where it has been used as a medicinal mushroom in traditional
Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years,[1] making it one of the oldest mushrooms known
to have been used medicinally. Lingzhi is listed in the American Herbal Pharmacopoeia and
Therapeutic Compendium.
Ganoderma lucidum
Mycological characteristics
pores on hymenium
cap is offset
or indistinct
hymenium attachment is irregular or not
applicable
stipe is bare
or lacks a stipe
spore print is brown
ecology is saprotrophic
or parasitic
edibility: edible
Lingzhi mushroom
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
靈芝
Simplified Chinese
灵芝
Literal meaning
supernatural mushroom
[show]Transcriptions
Korean name
영지
Hangul
[show]Transcriptions
Japanese name
Kana
レイシ
Kyūjitai
靈芝
Shinjitai
霊芝
[show]Transcriptions
Contents
[hide]
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1 Taxonomy and naming
o 1.1 Botanical names
o 1.2 Chinese names
o 1.3 Japanese names
o 1.4 Korean names
o 1.5 Vietnamese names
o 1.6 English names
2 Description
o 2.1 Varieties
3 Biochemistry
4 Habitat
5 History
6 Research and therapeutic usage
o 6.1 Preparation
7 See also


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8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Taxonomy and naming[edit]
Names for the lingzhi fungus have a two thousand year history. The Chinese term lingzhi 靈
芝 was first recorded in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE). Petter Adolf Karsten named
the genus Ganoderma in 1881.[2]
Botanical names[edit]
The lingzhi's botanical names have Greek and Latin roots. The generic name Ganoderma
derives from the Greek ganos γανος "brightness; sheen", hence "shining" and derma δερμα
"skin".[3] The specific epithet Lucidum is Latin for "shining" and tsugae for "hemlock" (from
Japanese tsuga 栂).
There are multiple species of Lingzhi, scientifically known to be within the Ganoderma
lucidum species complex and mycologists are still researching the differences among species
within this complex.[4]
Chinese names[edit]
In the Chinese language, lingzhi compounds ling 靈 "spirit, spiritual; soul; miraculous;
sacred; divine; mysterious; efficacious; effective" (cf. Lingyan Temple) and zhi 芝
"(traditional) plant of longevity; fungus; seed; branch; mushroom; excrescence". Fabrizio
Pregadio explains, "The term zhi, which has no equivalent in Western languages, refers to a
variety of supermundane substances often described as plants, fungi, or "excresences"."[5] Zhi
occurs in other Chinese plant names such as zhima 芝麻 "sesame" or "seed", and was
anciently used a phonetic loan character for zhi 芷 "Angelica iris". Chinese differentiates
Ganoderma species between chizhi 赤芝 "red mushroom" G. lucidum and zizhi 紫芝 "purple
mushroom" G. japonicum.
Lingzhi 靈芝has several synonyms. Ruicao 瑞草 "auspicious plant" (with rui 瑞 "auspicious;
felicitous omen" and the suffix cao "plant; herb") is the oldest; the (ca. 3rd century BCE)
Erya dictionary defines qiu 苬 (interpreted as a miscopy of jun 菌 "mushroom") as zhi 芝
"mushroom" and the commentary of Guo Pu (276–324) says, "The [zhi] flowers three times
in one year. It is a [ruicao] felicitous plant."[6] Other Chinese names for Ganoderma include
ruizhi 瑞芝 "auspicious mushroom", shenzhi 神芝 "divine mushroom" (with shen "spirit;
god' supernatural; divine"), mulingzhi 木靈芝 (with "tree; wood"), xiancao 仙草
"immortality plant" (with xian "(Daoism) transcendent; immortal; wizard"), and lingzhicao
靈芝草 or zhicao 芝草 "mushroom plant".
Since both Chinese Ling and Zhi have multiple meanings, Lingzhi has diverse English
translations. Renditions include "[zhi] possessed of soul power",[7] "Herb of Spiritual
Potency" or "Mushroom of Immortality",[8] "Numinous Mushroom",[9] "divine
mushroom",[10] "divine fungus",[11] "Magic Fungus",[12] and "Marvelous Fungus".[13]
Japanese names[edit]
Japanese language Reishi 霊芝 is a Sino-Japanese loan word from l=Lingzhi. This modern
Japanese kanji 霊 is the shinjitai "new character form" for the kyūjitai "old character form"
靈.
Reishi synonyms divide between Sino-Japanese borrowings and native Japanese coinages.
Sinitic loanwords include literary terms such as zuisō 瑞草 (from ruicao) "Auspicious Plant"
and sensō 仙草 (from xiaocao) "Immortality Plant". A common native Japanese name is
mannentake 万年茸 "10,000 year mushroom". The Japanese writing system uses shi or shiba
芝 for "grass; lawn; turf" and take or kinoko 茸 for "mushroom" (e.g., shiitake). Other
Japanese terms for Reishi include kadodetake 門出茸 "Departure Mushroom", hijiridake 聖
茸 "Sage Mushroom", and magoshakushi 孫杓子 "grandchild ladle".
Korean names[edit]
Korean language Yeong Ji or Yung Gee (영지,靈芝) is a word from hanja of lingzhi. It is also
called Seon-cho (선초,仙草), Gil-sang-beo-seot (길상버섯,吉祥茸), Yeong ji cho (영지초,
靈芝草) or Jeok ji (적지,赤芝). It can be classified by its color such as Ja-ji (자지,紫芝) for
purple one, Heuk-ji (흑지,黑芝) for black, Cheong-ji (청지,靑芝) for blue or green, Baek-ji
(백지,白芝) for white, Hwang-ji (황지,黃芝) for yellow.
Vietnamese names[edit]
Vietnamese language linh chi is a word from tiếng Việt. It is often used with (nấm Linh Chi)
which is the equivalent of Ganoderma Lucidum or Reishi Mushroom.
English names[edit]
English Lingzhi or ling chih (sometimes misspelled "ling chi" from French EFEO Chinese
transcription) is a Chinese loanword. The Oxford English Dictionary gives Chinese "líng
divine + zhī fungus" as the origin of ling chih or Lingzhi, and defines, "The fungus
Ganoderma lucidum, believed in China to confer longevity and used as a symbol of this on
Chinese ceramic ware."[14] The OED notes the earliest recorded usage of the Wade-Giles
romanization ling chih in 1904,[15] and of the Pinyin lingzhi in 1980. In addition to the
transliterated loanword, English names include "Glossy Ganoderma" and "shiny
polyporus".[16]
Description[edit]
Lingzhi is a polypore mushroom that is soft (when fresh), corky, and flat, with a conspicuous
red-varnished, kidney-shaped cap and, depending on specimen age, white to dull brown pores
underneath.[8] It lacks gills on its underside and releases its spores through fine pores, leading
to its morphological classification as a polypore.
young Sporocarp
Varieties[edit]
Ganoderma lucidum generally occurs in two growth forms, one, found in North America, is
sessile and rather large with only a small or no stalk, while the other is smaller and has a
long, narrow stalk, and is found mainly in the tropics. However, many growth forms exist
that are intermediate to the two types, or even exhibit very unusual morphologies,[8] raising
the possibility that they are separate species. Environmental conditions also play a substantial
role in the different morphological characteristics Lingzhi can exhibit. For example, elevated
carbon dioxide levels result in stem elongation in Lingzhi. Other forms show "antlers',
without a cap and these may be affected by carbon dioxide levels as well. The species can
also be differentiated by their colors in which the red reishi is the most researched kind.
Biochemistry[edit]
Ganoderic acid A, a compound isolated from Lingzhi.
Ganoderma lucidum produces a group of triterpenes, called ganoderic acids, which have a
molecular structure similar to steroid hormones.[17] It also contains other compounds often
found in fungal materials, including polysaccharides (such as beta-glucan), coumarin,[18]
mannitol, and alkaloids.[17]
Habitat[edit]
Ganoderma lucidum, and its close relative Ganoderma tsugae, grow in the northern Eastern
Hemlock forests. These two species of bracket fungus have a worldwide distribution in both
tropical and temperate geographical regions, growing as a parasite or saprotroph on a wide
variety of trees.[8] Similar species of Ganoderma have been found growing in the Amazon.[19]
In nature, Lingzhi grows at the base and stumps of deciduous trees, especially maple.[20] Only
two or three out of 10,000 such aged trees will have Lingzhi growth, and therefore its wild
form is extremely rare. Today, Lingzhi is effectively cultivated both indoors under sterile
conditions and outdoors on either logs or woodchip beds.
History[edit]
Man holding ganoderma by Chen Hongshou
The Chinese classics first used zhi during the Warring States Period (475–221 BCE) and
lingzhi during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE).
The word zhi 芝 occurs approximately 100 times in classical texts.[21] Occurrences in early
Chinese histories, such as the (91 BCE) Shiji "Records of the Grand Historian" and (82 CE)
Hanshu "Book of Han", predominantly refer to the "Mushroom of Immortality; elixir of life".
They record that fangshi "masters of esoterica; alchemists; magicians", supposedly followers
of Zou Yan (305–240 BCE), claimed to know secret locations like Mount Penglai where the
magic zhi mushroom grew. Some sinologists propose that the mythical zhi 芝 derived from
Indian legends about soma that reached China around the 3rd century BCE.[22] Fangshi
courtiers convinced Qin and Han emperors, most notably Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BCE)
and Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE), to dispatch large expeditions (e.g., Xu Fu in 219
BCE) seeking the zhi Plant of Immortality, but none produced tangible results. Zhi
occurrences in other classical texts often refer to an edible fungi. The Liji "Record of Ritual"
lists zhi "lichens" as a type of condiment.[23] The Chuci "Song of the South" metaphorically
mentions, "The holy herb is weeded out".[24] The Huainanzi "Philosophers of Huainan"
records a zizhi 紫芝 "Purple Mushroom" Aphorism, "The zhi fungus grows on mountains, but
it cannot grow on barren boulders."[25]
The word lingzhi 靈芝 was first recorded in a fu 賦 "rhapsody; prose-poem" by the Han
dynasty polymath Zhang Heng (CE 78–139). His Xijing fu 西京賦 "Western Metropolis
Rhapsody" description of Emperor Wu of Han's (104 BCE) Jianzhang Palace parallels lingzhi
with shijun 石菌 "Rock Mushroom": "Raising huge breakers, lifting waves, That drenched
the stone mushrooms on the high bank, And soaked the magic fungus on vermeil boughs."[26]
The commentary by Xue Zong (d. 237) notes these fungi were eaten as drugs of immortality.
The (ca. 1st–2nd century CE) Shennong bencao jing "Divine Farmer's Classic of
Pharmaceutics" classifies zhi into six color categories, each of which is believed to benefit the
qi "Life Force" in a different part of the body: qingzhi 青芝 "Green Mushroom" for Liver,
chizhi 赤芝 "Red Mushroom" for heart, huangzhi 黃芝 "Yellow Mushroom" for spleen,
baizhi 白芝 "White Mushroom" for Lung, heizhi "Black Mushroom" 黑芝 for kidney, and
zizhi 紫芝 "Purple Mushroom" for Essence. Commentators identify this red chizhi (or danzhi
丹芝 "cinnabar mushroom") as the lingzhi.
Chi Zhi (Ganoderma rubra) is bitter and balanced. It mainly treats binding in the chest,
boosts the heart qi, supplements the center, sharpens the wits, and [causes people] not to
forget [i.e., improves the memory]. Protracted taking may make the body light, prevent
senility, and prolong life so as to make one an immortal. Its other name is Dan Zhi (Cinnabar
Ganoderma). It grows in mountains and valleys.[27][28]
While Chinese texts have recorded medicinal uses of lingzhi for more than 2,000 years, a few
sources erroneously claim more than 4,000 years.[29] Modern scholarship neither accepts the
historicity of Shennong "Divine Farmer" (legendary inventor of agriculture, traditionally r.
2737–2697 BCE) nor that he wrote the Shennong bencao jing.
The (ca. 320 CE) Baopuzi, written by the Jin Dynasty Daoist scholar Ge Hong, has the first
classical discussion of Zhi.[30] Based upon no-longer extant texts, Ge distinguishes five
categories of zhi, each with 120 varieties: Shizhi 石芝 "stone Zhi", Muzhi 木芝 "wood Zhi",
Caozhi 草芝 "Plant Zhi", Rouzhi 肉芝 "flesh zhi", and junzhi 菌芝 "mushroom zhi. For
example, the "mushroom zhi".
Tiny excresences. These grow deep in the mountains, at the base of large trees or beside
springs. They may resemble buildings, palanquins and horses, dragon and tigers, human
beings, or flying birds. They may be any of the five colors. They too number 120 for which
there exist illustrations. All are to be sought and gathered while using Yu's Pace [a Daoist
ritual walk], and they are to be cut with a bone knife. When dried in the shade, powdered, and
taken by the inch-square spoonful, they produce geniehood. Those of the intermediate class
confer several thousands of years, and those of the lowest type a thousand years of life.[31]
Pregadio concludes, "While there may be no better term than "mushrooms" or "excresences"
to refer to them, and even though Ge Hong states that they "are not different from natural
mushrooms (ziran zhi 自然芝) (Baopuzi 16.287)", the Zhi pertain to an intermediate
dimension between mundane and transcendent reality."[32]
The (1596) Bencao Gangmu ("Compendium of Materia Medica") has a zhi 芝 category that
includes six types of Zhi (calling the green, red, yellow, white, black, and purple ones from
the Shennong bencao jing the liuzhi 六芝 "six mushrooms") and sixteen other fungi,
mushrooms, and lichens (e.g., mu'er 木耳 "wood ear" "Cloud ear fungus; Auricularia
auricula-judae"). The author Li Shizhen classified these six differently colored Zhi as
Xiancao 仙草 "immortality herbs", and described the effects of Chizhi "red mushroom":
It positively affects the life-energy, or Qi of the heart, repairing the chest area and benefiting
those with a knotted and tight chest. Taken over a long period of time, agility of the body will
not cease, and the years are lengthened to those of the Immortal Fairies.[33][34]
Stuart and Smith's classical study of Chinese herbology describes the zhi.
芝 (Chih) is defined in the classics as the plant of immortality, and it is therefore always
considered to be a felicitous one. It is said to absorb the earthy vapors and to leave a heavenly
atmosphere. For this reason it is called 靈芝 (Ling-chih.) It is large and of a branched form,
and probably represents Clavaria or Sparassis. Its form is likened to that of coral.[35]
The Bencao Gangmu does not list lingzhi as a variety of zhi, but as an alternate name for the
shi'er 石耳 "stone ear" "Umbilicaria esculenta" lichen. According to Stuart and Smith,
[The 石耳 Shih-erh is] edible, and has all of the good qualities of the 芝 (Chih), being also
used in the treatment of gravel, and said to benefit virility. It is specially used in hemorrhage
from the bowels and prolapse of the rectum. While the name of this would indicate that it was
one of the Auriculariales, the fact that the name 靈芝 (Ling-chih) is also given to it might
place it among the Clavariaceae.[36]
Chinese pharmaceutical handbooks on Zhi mushrooms were the first illustrated publications
in the history of mycology. The historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham discussed a nolonger extant Liang Dynasty (502–587) illustrated text called Zhong Shenzhi 種神芝 "On the
Planting and Cultivation of Magic Mushrooms".
The pictures of mushrooms in particular must have been an extremely early landmark in the
history of mycology, which was a late-developing science in the West. The title of [this book]
shows that fungi of some kind were being regularly cultivated – hardly as food, with that
special designation, more probably medicinal, conceivably hallucinogenic."[37]
The (1444) Ming Dynasty edition Daozang "Daoist canon" contains the Taishang lingbao
zhicao pin 太上靈寶芝草品 "Classifications of the Most High Divine Treasure Mushroom
Plant",[38] which categorizes 127 varieties of Zhi.[39] A (1598) Ming reprint includes
woodblock pictures.[40]
In Chinese art, the lingzhi symbolizes great health and longevity, as depicted in the imperial
Forbidden City and Summer Palace.[41] It was a talisman for luck in the traditional culture of
China, and the goddess of healing Guanyin is sometimes depicted holding a reishi
mushroom.[42]
Research and therapeutic usage[edit]
Lingzhi possesses anti-tumor, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory and immunotherapeutic
activities, supported by studies on polysaccharides, terpenes, and other bioactive compounds
isolated from fruiting bodies and mycelia of this fungus (reviewed by R. R. Paterson[17] and
Lindequist et al.[43]). It has also been found to inhibit platelet aggregation, and to lower blood
pressure (via inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme[44]), cholesterol, and blood
sugar.[45]
Laboratory studies have shown anti-neoplastic effects of fungal extracts or isolated
compounds against some types of cancer, including epithelial ovarian cancer.[46] In an animal
model, Ganoderma has been reported to prevent cancer metastasis,[47] with potency
comparable to Lentinan from Shiitake mushrooms.[48]
The mechanisms by which Ganoderma lucidum may affect cancer are unknown and they
may target different stages of cancer development: inhibition of angiogenesis (formation of
new, tumor-induced blood vessels, created to supply nutrients to the tumor) mediated by
cytokines, cytoxicity, inhibiting migration of the cancer cells and metastasis, and inducing
and enhancing apoptosis of tumor cells.[17] Nevertheless, Ganoderma lucidum extracts are
already used in commercial pharmaceuticals such as MC-S for suppressing cancer cell
proliferation and migration.
Additional studies indicate that ganoderic acid has some protective effects against liver injury
by viruses and other toxic agents in mice, suggesting a potential benefit of this compound in
the treatment of liver diseases in humans,[49] and Ganoderma-derived sterols inhibit
lanosterol 14α-demethylase activity in the biosynthesis of cholesterol .[50] Ganoderma
lucidum compounds inhibit 5-alpha reductase activity in the biosynthesis of
dihydrotestosterone.[44]
Besides effects on mammalian physiology, Ganoderma lucidum is reported to have antibacterial and anti-viral activities.[51][52] Ganoderma lucidum is reported to exhibit direct antiviral with the following viruses; HSV-1, HSV-2, influenza virus, vesicular stomatitis.
Ganoderma lucidum mushrooms are reported to exhibit direct anti-microbial properties with
the following organisms; Aspergillus niger, Bacillus cereus, Candida albicans, and
Escherichia coli. Other benefits were studied such as the effect of lowering hypertension,
cholesterol, and anti-inflammatory benefits through the ganoderic acid properties.
Its genome, with about 12,600 genes on 13 chromosomes, was sequenced in 2012.[53]
Preparation[edit]
Due to its bitter taste, Lingzhi is traditionally prepared as a hot water extract product.[54]
Thinly sliced or pulverized lingzhi (either fresh or dried) is added to a pot of boiling water,
the water is then brought to a simmer, and the pot is covered; the lingzhi is then simmered for
two hours.[citation needed] The resulting liquid is fairly bitter in taste and dark, with the more
active red lingzhi more bitter than the black. The process is sometimes repeated for additional
concentration. Alternatively, it can be used as an ingredient in a formula decoction or used to
make an extract (in liquid, capsule, or powder form). The more active red forms of lingzhi are
far too bitter to be consumed in a soup. While hot water extraction seems to be effective to
target the polysaccharides, alcohol extraction is another method used to extract the triterpenes
element of the Reishi.
See also[edit]

Medicinal mushrooms
References[edit]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
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^ Karsten PA. (1881). "Enumeratio Boletinearum et Polyporearum Fennicarum, systemate novo
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^ Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United
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^ R. S. Hseu, H. H. Wang, H. F. Wang and J. M. Moncalvo (1 April 1996). "Differentiation and
grouping of isolates of the Ganoderma Lucidum complex by random amplified polymorphic DNAPCR compared with grouping on the basis of internal transcribed spacer sequences" (Abstract). Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 62 (4): 1354–1363. PMC 167902. PMID 8919797.
^ Pregadio, Fabrizio (2008). "Zhi 芝 numinous mushrooms; excrescences", in The Encyclopedia of
Taoism, Fabrizio Pregadio, ed., Routledge, p. 1271.
^ Tr. by E. Bretschneider (1893), Botanicon Sinicum; Notes on Chinese Botany from Native and
Western Sources, Kelly & Walsh, p. 40.
^ Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1892–1910), The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution,
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^ a b c d David Arora (1986). Mushrooms demystified, 2nd edition. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-89815169-4.
^ Pregadio (2008), p. 1271.
^ .Hu, Shiu-ying (2006), Food plants of China, Chinese University Press.
^ Bedini, Silvio A. (1994), The Trail of Time, Cambridge University Press, p. 113.
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^ Schipper, Kristofer M. (1993), The Taoist Body, University of California Press, p. 174.
^ Oxford English Dictionary (2009), CD-ROM edition (v. 4.0), s.v. ling chih.
^ Stephen Wootton Bushell (1904), Chinese Art, Victoria and Albert Museum, p. 148. This context
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^ Names of a Selection of Asian Fungi, multilingual multi-script plant name database.
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1985–2001. doi:10.1002/chin.200650268. PMID 16905165.)
^ Biosci.Biotechnol.Biochem.,68(4),881–887,2004
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^ (National Audubon Society; Field Guide to Mushrooms,1993)
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27. ^ 神農本草經, 草上品. 赤芝。 苦, 平, 無毒。胸中結, 益心氣, 補中, 增智慧, 不忘。久食, 輕身不
老, 延年神仙。一名丹芝。 延年神仙。
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33. ^ 本草綱目/菜之三. 胸中結, 益心氣, 補中, 增智慧, 不忘。久食, 輕身不老, 延年神仙。
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inhibition of 5alpha-reductase by triterpenoids isolated from Ganoderma lucidum". Bioorg. Med.
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46. ^ Zhao S, Ye G, Fu G, Cheng JX, Yang BB, Peng C.,"Ganoderma lucidum exerts anti-tumor effects on
ovarian cancer cells and enhances their sensitivity to cisplatin." Int J Oncol. 2011 Mar 8;
47. ^ Lee, SS., Chen, FD., Chang, SC., et al. (1984). In vivo anti-tumor effects of crude extracts from the
mycelium of Ganoderma lucidum. J. of Chinese Oncology Society 5(3): 22–28.
48. ^ Suga, T.; Shiio, T.; Maeda, YY.; Chihara, G. (1994). "Anti tumor activity of lenytinan in murine
syngeneic and autochthonous hosts and its suppressive effect on 3 methylcholanthrene induced
carcinogenesis". Cancer Res. 44: 5132.
49. ^ Li YQ, Wang SF (2006). "Anti-hepatitis B activities of ganoderic acid from Ganoderma lucidum".
Biotechnol. Lett. 28 (11): 837–841. doi:10.1007/s10529-006-9007-9. PMID 16786250.
50. ^ Hajjaj H, Macé C, Roberts M, Niederberger P, Fay LB (July 2005). "Effect of 26-oxygenosterols
from Ganoderma lucidum and their activity as cholesterol synthesis inhibitors". Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 71 (7): 3653–8. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.7.3653-3658.2005. PMC 1168986. PMID 16000773.
51. ^ Wang H, Ng TB (January 2006). "Ganodermin, an antifungal protein from fruiting bodies of the
medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum". Peptides 27 (1): 27–30.
doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2005.06.009. PMID 16039755.
52. ^ Moradali MF, Mostafavi H, Hejaroude GA, Tehrani AS, Abbasi M, Ghods S (2006). "Investigation
of potential antibacterial properties of methanol extracts from fungus Ganoderma applanatum".
Chemotherapy 52 (5): 241–4. doi:10.1159/000094866. PMID 16899973.
53. ^ Chen, Shilin (2012). "Genome sequence of the model medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum".
Nature Communications 3. doi:10.1038/ncomms1923. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
54. ^ Smith, Rowan, and Sullivan (2001), p. 31.
Further reading[edit]
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Xie, J.T.; Wang, C.Z.; Wicks, S.; Yin, J.J.; Kong, J.; Li, J.; Li, Y.C.; Yuan, C.S.
(2006). "Ganoderma lucidum extract inhibits proliferation of SW 480 human
colorectal cancer cells". Exp Oncol 28 (1): 25–9. PMID 16614703.
Müller, C.I.; Kumagai, T.; O’kelly, J.; Seeram, N.P.; Heber, D.; Koeffler, H.P. (2006).
"Ganoderma lucidum causes apoptosis in leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma
cells". Leukemia Research 30 (7): 841–848. doi:10.1016/j.leukres.2005.12.004.
PMID 16423392.
Gao, Y.; Tang, W.; Dai, X.; Gao, H.; Chen, G.; Ye, J.; Chan, E.; Koh, H.L.; Li, X.;
Zhou, S. (2005). "Effects of water-soluble Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on
the immune functions of patients with advanced lung cancer". J Med FoodTimo H. J.
8 (2): 159–168. doi:10.1089/jmf.2005.8.159.
Lindequist, U.; Niedermeyer, T.H.J. ; Jülich, W.D. (2005). "The pharmacological
potential of mushrooms.". Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2 (3): 285–99.
doi:10.1093/ecam/neh107. PMC 1193547. PMID 16136207. Unknown parameter
|unused_data= ignored (help)
Tanaka, S.; Ko, K.; Kino, K.; Tsuchiya, K.; Yamashita, A.; Murasugi, A.; Sakuma, S.;
Tsunoo, H. (1989). "Complete amino acid sequence of an immunomodulatory protein,
ling zhi-8 (LZ-8). An immunomodulator from a fungus, Ganoderma lucidum, having
similarity to immunoglobulin variable regions.". J. Biol. Chem. 264 (28): 16372–7.
PMID 2570780. Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
Murasugi, A.; Tanaka, S.; Komiyama, N.; Iwata, N.; Kino, K.; Tsunoo, H.; Sakuma,
S. (1991). "Molecular cloning of a cDNA and a gene encoding an immunomodulatory
protein, Ling Zhi-8, from a fungus, Ganoderma lucidum.". J. Biol. Chem. 266 (4):
2486–93. PMID 1990000. Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)
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