Chapter 15: Implementing and
Integrating Decision Support Systems
Decision Support Systems in the
21st Century, 2nd Edition
by George M. Marakas
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 1
15-1: DSS Implementation
By now the need for a unique approach to the
design and construction of a DSS should be
evident.
Equally important, and also unique, is the
process of implementing the DSS.
In essence, implementation is the process of
deliberately introducing change into the
organization.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 2
Introducing Change into the
Organization
Although numerous models of change have
been advanced, two elegant ones are:
 The Lewin-Schein theory – the process
occurs in three stages: unfreezing, moving,
and then refreezing.
 The Kolb-Frohman model – this model is
more elaborate and contains seven steps.
It is considered more normative.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 3
The Kolb-Frohman
Normative Model of Change
Scouting – user and designer assess each
other to see if there is a match.
2. Entry – user and designer develop a
statement of goals and commit to the
project.
3. Diagnosis – user and designer gather data
to refine the problem definition.
4. Planning – user and designer define specific
objectives and examine ways to meet them.
1.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
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The Kolb-Frohman
Normative Model of Change
Action – the “best” alternative is put into
practice.
6. Evaluation – user and designer assess how
well goals and objectives have been met.
7. Termination – user and designer ensure that
ownership of the system rests in the hands
of users.
5.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 5
Patterns of Implementation
The initial impetus behind the development of
a DSS can come from a user, management,
or an entrepreneur.
The third source comes when someone
makes an effort to “sell” the organization on
the idea of developing a DSS.
Building on these, Alter identified six generic
DSS implementation patterns. These are
portrayed in the following chart.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 6
Six Generic DSS Implementation Patterns
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 7
15-2: System Evaluation
Measures of success remain less than clear.
How do the designer and user know success
when they see it?
Although no generalizable set of standards
exist, there are a number of ways of
measuring success, each with its own criteria.
Several authors focus on the quality of the
software in measuring success.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 8
Characteristics of Software Quality
Portability – the amount of platform independence
Reliability – degree of completeness, accuracy,
and consistency
Efficiency – degree of efficiency and accessibility
Human-engineering – degree of
communicativeness
Testability – degree of structuredness
Understandability – degree of self-descriptiveness,
conciseness, and legibility
Modifiability – degree of augmentability
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 9
Other Measures of Success
Attitudinal Measures – One approach is to
focus on the degree to which the system is
actually used. Another is to measure user
satisfaction.
Technical Measures – Often this involves a
comparison of the features of the DSS to the
original user requirements.
Organizational Measures – Focus is on the
degree to which organizational needs have
been met or exceeded.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 10
Criteria for a Successful DSS
Improves the way decision makers think about
problems.
Fits well with the organization’s planning methods.
Fits well with the political approach to decision
making within the organization.
Results in alternatives and choices that are
implemented.
Is considered both cost-effective and valuable
relative to its development costs.
Is expected to be used for a measurable period of
time.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 11
Measuring DSS Success
One framework contains four measurement
categories:
1. System performance – response time,
data entry, output format, usage, and user
interface.
2. Task performance – decision quality,
measured by time spent in the decision
process. Also, trust, confidence, and
satisfaction.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 12
Measuring DSS Success (cont.)
One framework contains four measurement
categories:
3. Business opportunities – costs of
development and operation. Increased
income and changes in productivity.
4. Evolutionary aspects – degree of flexibility,
overall functionality of the DSS.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 13
Risks in DSS Implementation Projects
S.L. Alter identified eight basic clusters of risk
factors. More details about the typical
results of these problems are in Table 15-7:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Nonexistent or unwilling users
Multiple users or implementers
Disappearing users, implementers, maintainers
Inability to specify purpose or usage pattern
Inability to predict and cushion impact
Loss or lack of support
Lack of experience with similar systems
Technical problems and cost-effectiveness
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 14
DSS Implementation Strategies
A risk analysis conducted using the factors on
the previous slide could identify several that
may occur, calling for strategies to deal with
them.
Choice of strategy depends on available
resources, likelihood of project completion,
and constraints specific to each strategy.
The next slide shows four general categories
of implementation strategies that S.L. Alter
identified. More details are in Table 15-8.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 15
S.L. Alter’s
DSS Implementation Strategies
Divide the project into manageable pieces, use
prototypes, an evolutionary approach, and
develop a set of tools.
2. Keep the solution simple, hide complexity, and
avoid change.
3. Develop a satisfactory support base, obtain user
participation and commitment, obtain
management support.
4. Meet user needs and institutionalize the system,
provide training and assistance, insist on
mandatory use, and tailor to users’ capabilities.
1.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
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Issue-Based Management Approach
This new perspective on DSS design and
implementation takes a process-centric
perspective.
Designers focus on the issues and objectives
associated with each step rather than
focusing on decision makers and problems.
Another difference is in the favored
technologies: multimedia connectivity and
object-oriented programming versus expert
systems and artificial intelligence.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 17
15-3: The Importance of Integration
Integrating the DSS into the organization
means the new application is merged in a
seamless fashion. This contributes to user
perception that it is easy to use and useful.
Two general categories of integration are
functional (the DSS functions are linked to
existing systems) and physical (the hardware
and software of the DSS merge with existing).
The next slide portrays one model for global
DSS integration.
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 18
Generalized Globally Integrated DSS
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
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Resistance and Other “Normal” Reactions
Resistance to change is normal and should be
expected. Several factors contribute:
 Self-interest – the new system may be a
threat to current status
 Fear of unknown – users may be uncertain of
their ability to learn new skills
 Differing perceptions – users may believe the
new system will be ineffective.
 Suspicion – users may not trust the advocates
of the project
 Conservatism – users may feel everything is
fine now, and may simply be opposed to
change
Marakas: Decision Support Systems, 2nd Edition © 2003, Prentice-Hall
Chapter 15 - 20