Introductory anatomy Objectives
Conceptual Overview- what is anatomy/basic terminology:
1. Disciplines:
1. Gross- structures viewed and studied w/o scientific instrumentation
2. Histology-study of micro anatomy, using microscopes
3. embryology-development
4. Clinical- gross in context of structure, function, dysfunction
2. Anatomic position:
1. supine- lying on back
2. prone-lying on front
3. superior-inferior
4. anterior(ventral) posterior (dorsal)
5.lateral-medial
6. distal-proximal
7. superficial- deep
8. internal-external
9. unilateral- only on one side
10. bilateral- structure on both sides
11. ipsilateral- remains on same side as origination
12. contralateral- crosses midline from origination
13. palmar-plantar
3. Planes:
1. Sagittal- paramedial or midsagittal
2. Transverse
3. Coronal-anterior and posterior halves
4. oblique planes
4. terminology of anatomy used to describe location
1. dorsal body cavity- cranial cavity or vault (brain) , vertebral (spinal cord)
2. Ventral body- thorax and abdominal pelvic cavities separated by diaphragm
3. thoracic- pleural cavities (lungs) mediastinum (superior vessels of heart and
pericardial cavity heart)
4. abdominal pelvic cavity- abdominal (digestive) pelvic (urinary and reproductive)
5. serious membranes- simple squamous epithelium
Visceral- touches organ
Parietal- touches wall
Serous cavity- fluid in between
Other locations:
Oral cavity-mouth
Nasal- behind nose
Orbital- eyes
Middle ear- inner ear bones
Synovial cavity- synovial joints with synovial fluid
Landmarks:
Section 2: Skeletal system
1. features of cartilage
2.Functions and types of cartilage
3. Functions of skeletal system
1. Provide support to soft tissues- framework
2. Provides protection for tissue/organs- body cavities
3. Storage- 90% ca and phosphate stores
4. Storage of red bone marrow for hematopoeisis
4. Major divisions of skeletal system
Vault- protect brain
Ribcage- organs of ventral
5. General bone features
1. about 126 bones
2. Axial (skull, thoracic cage, vert column) and Appendicular skeleton (pectoral girdle,
upper limb, pelvic girdle, lower limb)
3. shapes
A. long bones- epiphysis (covered by articular cartilage) and shaft (hallow
medullary cavity lined with endostium and holds yellow marrow outer membrane of bone is
periostium), metaphasis (contains growth plate)
b. Short bones- cube shaped-
C. Flat bones-thin
D. Irregular- unusual shapes
E. Sesmoid- small and only in tendons
6. Formation of bone
1. OssificationA. Intramembraneous- when osteoblasts produce bone matrix in mesenchymal
tissue locations (flat bones of skull). Begins with ossification center s in thickened mesenchyme
which osteoprogenetia, osteoblasts (lay down matrix), woven bone (replaced by lamellar bone),
remodeling and replacement of woven bone by compact bone and spongy bone.
B. endochondrial- new bone from cartilage models- all long bones- 8-12 weeks of
development, formation of bone center, cartilage matrix begins to calcify shaft, blood vessels
penetrate, osteoblasts lay down periosteal bone collar, primary ossification center in center
diaphysis, acts as a model for new osteoblasts to deposit newly synthesized osteoid, secondary
centers in epiphysis, cartilage replaced except hyaline cartilage on ends.
2. Interstitial- bones grow longer (epiphyseal plate and hyaline cartilage in plate cause
this) cartilage lay down new material to increase length
3. appositional bone growth- increase in diameter of bone, bone added on surface by
osteoblasts in periosteum. As bone deposited, bone next to medullary cavity absorbed by
osteoclasts
7. Joint classifications
1. Function- amount of movement between bones
1. Synarthrosis- cant move
2. amphiarthrosis - slightly moveable
3. Diarthrosis- freely immovable
2. Surround or hold
1. Fibrous joint- unites ends of bones with dense connective tissue
a. suture-skull synarthrosis
b. gomphosis- tooth and jaw synarthrosis
c. syndesmosis - dense tissue between two bones as interosseous
member- radius/ulna- amphiarthrosis
2. Cartilaginous - utilizes cartilage between bones
a. synchondrosis - hyaline cartilage plates between bones- epi plate in
growing bones- synarthrosis
b. symphysis- fibrocartilage connection between two bones- pubic
symphysis, intervertebral discs- ampiarthrosis
3. synovial- joint capsule surrounds ends of bone to hold it together
a. double layer
Fibrous- outer, creates a cavity
Synovial membrane- inner, secrets fluid to joint
8. Structures and types of synovial joints
1. double layer
a. Fibrous- outer, creates a cavity
b. Synovial membrane- inner, secrets fluid to joint
2. Diarthrosis joints- Ligaments used to help support joint
Types: Uniaxial (planar or gliding- pivot- hinge), biaxial (condyloid, saddle), multiaxial
(ball and socket)
9. Vasculature and innervation joints
10. Terms associated with movement
Flexion (decreases angle) and extension (increase angle), hyperextension (extension
beyond anatomic position)Abduction and adduction and circumduction (circle, continuous flexion abduction,
extension and adduction in succession)
Lateral flexion (vertebral column)
Gliding- one flat bone over another flat bone (carpal bones in wrist)
Rotation-bone pivots around its axis
Lateral and medial rotation
Elevation and depression
FOOT ONLY
Dorsiflexion- movement of ankle dorsum closer to surface of leg
Plantar flexion- Sole of foot to posterior surface of leg
Inversion- twisting sole inward
Eversion-twisting sole outward
FOREARM
Supination- palm turned anteriorly
Pronation- palm turned posterior
ANY
Protraction and retraction
Opposition- thumb towards palm and fingers to hold objects
Skin and Fascias
1. Describe the general functions and features of skin.
Protection, sensation, absorption, heat regulation
2. Describe types of fascia, composition, and locations.
Fascia- connective tissue with ECM from collagen, elastin, reticular fibers help add
strength, compartmentalize structures, facilitate movement
Superficial fascia
Fatty layerDeep layer- membranous
Deep/investing fascia
Neurovascular sheath
Retinacula
Fibrous
Intramuscular septa
Muscle attachments
Muscular System
1. Describe all three types of muscle.
Skeletal, cardio, smooth
2. Discuss the structures of skeletal muscle.
Muscles (epimysium) Fascial (perimysium), Fibers (endomysium)
3. Discuss the general features of skeletal muscle; including naming of muscle.
Named for action or function (adductor magnus)
Named for body region (flexor digiti minimi)
Named for points of attachment (sternocleidomastoid)
Named for shape (deltoid)
Named for size (magnus, brevis, longus)
Named for number of muscle attachments (biceps, triceps)
Named for orientation of muscle fibers
4. Discuss basic concepts of muscles functions.
Prime mover
Antagonist
Synergist
Fixators
Cardiovascular System
1. Describe the components of the cardiovascular system.
1. Heart
2. blood vessels
3. blood- transport nutrients, allows communication (endocrine), protect from
infections
RBC, WBC, platelets- formed elements
Blood plasma- 91% water 7% protein 2% other solutes 1% electrolytes
2. Describe the structure of blood vessels.
Larger  smaller
3. Compare and contrast the various types of blood vessels with their functions and their wall
composition.
Tunica intica- endothelium (allows blood to pass w/o obstruction)_
Tunica media- circular layers of smooth (vasoconstriction and dilation)
Tunica externa- connective tissue
Large elastic (aorta, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary artery) greater TM able to distend and recoil
so they maintain blood pressure and conduct blood
Muscular arteries more musical layers in TI
Small arteries and arterioles- fewer elastic and smaller muscular cell layers begin to lose TE
Vasovasorium- network of small arteries in TE of larger blood vessels (own blood supply)
Vasoconstriction, vasodilation, baroreceptors (pressure change detectors), chemoreceptors
(chem/balance level detector)
VEINS
1. Large – all 3 layers, but less smooth muscle than arteries
2. Medium- decrease in TM- major difference VALVES (TI and collagen/elastic structures)
3. Venuoles- drain capillary beds low TM
LINKING CONNECTION- capillaries (simple squamous epithelium)
1. continuous- endothelium forms complete continuous lining, connected by tight junctions
2. fenestrated- continuous epithelium and basement membrane, but small holes for passage of
molecules
3. sinusoidal- discontinuous, large gaps in endothelium and basement membrane
Great vessels- transport blood to and from heart
Superior and inferior vena cava- dumps into RA
Pulmonary trunk- blood from RV to lungs
Aorta- system circuit, from LV to systems of body
4. Define anastomosis and discuss the functional consequences of these vascular
connections.
5. Describe the general organization and the flow of blood through the heart.
2 pumps push blood
Right side pushes deoxygenated blood to lungs to exchange o2 and co2pulmonary circuit
Left side pushes blood to arteries to body- systemic circuit
Systemic circuit RA from SV or IF tricuspidRVsemilunar valve pulmonary trunk
separates to pulmonary arteries lungs (gas exchange) pulmonary veins- LA bicuspid
LVAortic semilunar valve ascending aorta
Lymphatic System
1. Discuss the organization of the lymphatic system.
Lymph
Lymph channels- lymphatic capillaries drain to small lymph vesselslarger vessels
Lymph tissue
2. Identify and describe the components of the lymphatic’s system.
3. Discuss the structure and function of lymph nodes.
Afferent lymph vessel to node then out of node efferent lymph vessel
Lymphocyte production
Facilitated by contraction of skeletal, arterial pulse, smooth muscle contraction, respiration
movements
4. Describe the general pattern of lymphatic drainage for the body.
From lower extremities and left upper extremities and left upper neck- thoracic duct and
cisternic chiale (drainage from digestive tract)
Right upper extremities, thorax, head and neck– right lymphatic duct
Nervous System
1. Distinguish between the divisions of the nervous system, physical and functional.
CNS- brain and spinal cord
PNS- 12 cranial nerves 31 spinal nerves and associate ganglia
Segmental in nature:
31 pairs – 8 cervical, 12 T, 5 L, 5S and 1 C
Neuron
Cell body or Soma- contains organelles
Dendrites- info to soma
Axon- signal away from soma
Synaptic knobs- contain neurotransmitter for release at synapse
1. Unipolar neuron- Single dendrite
2. Bipolar neuron- single dendrite one soma and axon on other side of soma
3. Multipolar neuron- single axon leaves soma with lots of branching dendrites
Function divisions:
1. Sensory- afferent or motor- efferent
2. Voluntary (somatic) or involuntary (autonomic/visceral)
Sympathetic- flight of fight
Parasympathetic- rest/digest
2. Identify and describe the meninges.
Dura mater- thick elastic
Epidural space- between dura and periostium of vertebrae
Subdural space- potential space due to the next is arachnoid
Arachnoid mater- spidery, web like appearance
Subarachnoid space- filled with CSF, blood vessels and connective tissue
Pia materDenticulate ligaments- extend laterally and touch dura mater and stabilize cord
Grey mater- neuron cell bodies and synaptic junctions
White mater tracks- many mylinated axons,
Ventral/anterior Horn- motor functions
Dorsal/posterior horn- sensory functions
3. Describe the general concepts of dermatomes and myotomes and how they are mapped on
the body.
Dermatomes
From segmentations mentioned aboveEach level has a direct innervation to that skin
Myotome
Motor control for a spinal cord level
Sclaratome
Innervation of bones
4. Describe organization and structures of the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
Spinal canal- Atlas –L2= spinal cord
Cervical enlargement C3-T2- brachial plexus
Lumbar enlargement L1-s3-lumbar plexus
Conus medularis tapering and cauda equine
5. Describe the general organization of the autonomic nervous system.
PNS- parasympathetic – rest/digestion
SNS- sympathetic- fight or flight
6. Identify and describe the origin of preganglionic sympathetic and the pathway options of the
sympathetic fiber.
7. Identify and describe the origin of preganglionic parasympathetic and the pathway
options of the parasympathetic fiber.
8. Discuss the anatomic basis for referred pain.
Somatic afferent fiber spinal nerve to spinal cord dorsal root dorsal root ganglion
dorsal rootlets grey matterInterneuron somatic efferent signal from the ventral horn(
cell body) action potential for axon ventral rootlet ventral root spinal nervemuscle
Clinical and Surface Anatomy
When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
1. Apply anatomic knowledge and understanding to clinical scenarios presented in the
chapter (see green boxes).