Ch. 2
Social Research
What is a Valid Sociological Topic?
• Macro - Broad Matters – large scale features of
social structure.
• Micro - Individualistic Matters – places emphasis
on social interaction, or what people do when
they come together.
Sources of Knowledge About Society
• Four major nonscientific sources of knowledge
– Intuition – quick and ready insight not based on rational
thought
– Common sense – refers to opinions widely held because
they seem so obviously correct; what everyone knows may
not be true
– Authority – someone who supposedly has special
knowledge that not everyone has
– Tradition – knowledge because that is what those older than
us state as fact
Sources of Knowledge About Society
• Nonscientific knowledge often provides false or
misleading information, therefore we need to
question what we think we know.
• We need to seek an understanding of where and
how the information was gathered.
• Application of the scientific method when doing and
accepting research is very helpful.
Sources of Knowledge About Society
Science
• Objectivity – scientists are expected to prevent their
personal biases from influencing the interpretation of their
results (Weber’s concept verstehen). Data is to be
interpreted on the basis of merit.
• Verifiability – a study can be repeated by others. This
exposes one work to critical analysis, retesting, and revision
by colleagues.
A Research Model
• Selecting a Topic
• Defining a Problem
• Reviewing the Literature
• Formulating a Hypothesis
• Choosing a Research Method
• Collecting Data
• Analyzing Results
• Sharing Results/Writing up and Publishing
1. Selecting a Topic & 2. Defining the Problem
• Selecting a topic is guided by sociological curiosity,
interest in a particular topic, research funding from a
governmental or private source, and pressing social
issues.
• Questions addressed here in the development of
stating the problem include:
– What is the topic for investigation?
– In what is the researcher interested in learning more
information?
– How will society and research be enriched from the
information to be gathered?
3. Reviewing the Literature
• Involves specifying what the researcher wants to
learn about the topic.
• Examine the existing literature for relevant theories
and previous research methods and findings.
• How does previous research inform your topic?
4. Formulating Hypotheses
• Hypothesis – tentative, testable statements of
relationship among variables.
• Operationalization – defining simple, observable
procedures.
• Conceptualization – clearly stating what variables
mean.
5. Choose a Research Method
• Population – all those people with the
characteristics a researcher wants to study.
• Sample – a limited number of cases drawn from
the larger population.
• It is important to select a random and stratified
sample in order for the researcher to make
sound generalizations from the data
6. Collecting Data
• Three basic ways of gathering
data in sociological research:
– Asking people questions –
Survey
– Observing behavior –
Participant Observation
– Analyzing existing materials and
records – Secondary Analysis
and Document Analysis
– Validity and Reliability
7. Analyzing Data
• Before analyzing the
data and after it is
collected, it must also
be classified or coded.
– Quantitative or
Qualitative
• When looking over the
data collected, the
researcher is looking to
see whether or not the
identified hypotheses
are supported.
8. Writing up and Publishing
• Regardless of whether the sample was of a large size
or the hypotheses were supported, the findings of the
research should be written up and reported.
• The researcher will reflect on whether the methods
used were adequate, were there limitations in the study,
and in what ways were the hypotheses accepted,
rejected, or modified.
• By making the information public, it makes it possible
for others to:
• Duplicate/replicate the research
• conduct a slightly different study
• or proceed in a very different direction.
The Research Model
• Reliability
– …a measurement technique that yields consistent results on
repeated application.
• Validity
– …exists when a measurement technique actually measures
what it is designed to measure.
• Replication
– …the duplication of the same study of ascertain its accuracy.
The Research Model
Research Methods
Surveys – people are asked to respond to a series of
questions by mail, email, face-to-face, and/or by telephone.
• Selecting a Sample
– Determine population, Select sample
– Random Sample – a sample of the population where
every member of the population has equal opportunity of
being selected.
– Stratified Random Sample – population is divided into
categories/subgroups such as sex, age, race; subjects are
then selected randomly from each category. This is to
ensure the proportion of persons in a given category
reflects the population at large.
Research Methods
Questionnaires – are written
• Self-Administered
• Ideal for studying large numbers of people.
• Low Cost
• Representative samples are selected.
• Relatively precise.
• Permit the comparison of responses.
Research Methods
Interviews
– More Researcher Control
– Time Consuming
– Interviewer Bias
• Structured Interviews
• Close-ended Questions – limited, predetermined set of answers
are provided (i.e., multiple choice). May fail to elicit the
participants underlying attitudes and opinions.
• Unstructured Interviews
• Open-ended Questions – asks the respondent to answer in his or
her own words. Not always easy to quantify.
• Establishing Rapport
Research Methods
• Disadvantages of survey research
– surveys are expensive
– questionnaires may not include unanticipated
information
– responses rates are often low
– wording may introduce bias
– surveys cannot probe deeply into context
Research Methods
Participant Observation
• Researcher Participates
• Done for Exploratory Work
• Generates Hypotheses
Research Methods
Case Studies
• Focus on Single
– Event, situation, individual, group, community
• Reveals Detail
– Accomplished primarily through intensive
observation, information obtained from informants,
and informal interviews.
Research Methods
Disadvantages of Case Studies/Participant
Observations
• Findings from one case may not be generalizable to
similar situations.
• Possibility of bias of field researcher; researcher often
has to rely on personal judgment and interpretation.
• Lack of objectivity and standardized research
procedures makes it difficult for other researchers to
replicate.
Research Methods
Secondary Analysis
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•
•
•
the use of previously collected information
Permits high quality research.
Low cost.
Reveals changes in variables over an extended period
of time.
• Sources include government reports, company records,
voting records, prison records, police reports, books,
newspapers, and reports from research done by
others.
Secondary Analysis
• Advantages
– Permit the study of issue over time.
– Researcher cannot influence the answers.
• Disadvantages
– Existing information may not exactly suit current
researcher’s needs.
– People who originally collected the data may
have been biased.
– May be too old to be valid.
– Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data Quality
Research Methods
Experiments
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•
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Experimental Group
Control Group
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Research Methods
Unobtrusive Measures
• Observe People Without Them Knowing
• Question of Ethics
Deciding Which Method to Use
• Access to Resources
• Access to Subjects
• Purpose of Research
• Researcher’s Background and Training
Deciding Which Method to Use
• Quantitative Research Methods
– Emphasis on Precise Measurement
– Uses Statistics and Numbers
• Qualitative Research Methods
– Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and
Interpreting Behavior
How Not to do Research
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Choose Biased Sample
Ask Biased Questions
List Biased Choices
Discard Undesirable Results
Misunderstand Subjects World
Analyze Data Incorrectly
Controversy in Sociological Research
• Poke into Private Areas of Lives
• Threatens Those with a Stake
Gender in Sociological Research
• Affects Orientation and Attitudes
• Interviewer Bias
• Women and Men Lead Different Lives
Ethics in Sociological Research
• Sociologists are committed to:
– Objectivity
– Openness, Honesty, and Truthfulness
– Highest technical research standards
– Accurate reporting of methods and findings
• Forbids Falsifying Results
• Condemns Plagiarism
– Subjects’ Informed Consent
– Subjects’ Anonymity
• Protection of the rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, and
autonomy of the subjects of their research.
Ethics in Sociological Research
• The code is concerned with maximizing the benefits of
sociology to society and minimizing the harm that
sociological work might create.
• Several eminent social scientists have been criticized
for conducting research that many scientists consider
unethical. Subjects were placed in stressful situations
without being informed of the true nature of the
experiment: Milgram, Humphreys
How Research and Theory Work Together
• Neither Research nor Theory can Stand Alone
• Theories Must Be Tested
• Findings Must be Explained with Theory