6GEO3 Unit 3 Contested Planet
The Technological Fix
What is this topic about?
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This is a summative topic for all of the Contested
Planet module
A technological fix is an innovation that can be used
to solve a problem facing humans. Tools, machines
and systems allow us to control nature and improve
quality of life. Removal of technology, however
temporarily, can lead to crises.
We have increasingly become dependant on new
technology, but there are both positive and negative
aspects to its use. An attitudinal fix may also be
necessary , involving changes in peoples perception
and personal actions about a problem .
The geography of technology involves investigating
why there inequality in access to technology on a
global and local scale.
Technology and development looks at how far
technology determines development and resource use
Lastly, you will evaluate the role of technology in the
future management of the contested planet’s
environment.
CONTENTS
1. The geography of technology
2. Technology and development
3. 3 Technology, environment and
the future
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1.
The geography of technology:
•Why do we need technology ?
•Is technology causing the planet’s problems?
•Can it help solve them?
•What else is needed?
The 2003 publication ‘2030 Spike: Countdown to
Global Catastrophe’ by Colin Mason
stated ‘we must act decisively, collectively
and immediately’ about:
• Shortages of fossil fuels
• Global population growth -near 8 billion and
rapidly increasing in some areas
• Persistent poverty - 1.1 billion will be living on
less than $1 per day in 2011
• Climate change- possible 1-2°c warming by
2030
• Water shortages -by 2030, people may have
access to 30% less water
• Rising food insecurity and possibly famine
• Land degradation and persistent pollution
Types of technological fix
This diagram categorises the types of technological fix, and introduces mini
examples you will learn about either in this topic or the other 5 topics in
Contested Planet
High
Tech
May be both
community
based ‘bottom
up’ and ‘top
down’ from
governments
Low
Tech
Appropriate
technology
appropriate to
local level of
skills, income,
knowledge but
may be higher
tech e.g. wind
up radio,
laptops,
mobiles for
Grameen banks
Civil
engineering
e.g. Cities,
dams, wind
farms
Intermediate
technology
easily mastered by
locals e.g.
pumpkin tanks,
jiko stoves
Labour
Intensive
Micro
Nano & Bio
technology technology
e.g. ICT
mobiles
banking
internet
e.g. Green
Revolution
methods +
GM products
Energy Security
Geo engineering
planetary scale
engineering,
largely untested
e.g. space mirrors
Alternative
technology to
Water conflicts
Biodiversity under threat
traditional
methods e.g.
biodiesel
NB Some technologies
cross categories,
hence overlaps shown
on the diagram
Bridging the Development Gap
Capital
Intensive
NB role of Leapfrogging technology where new technology
is introduced without a legacy, e.g. mobile phones do not
need pre existing landlines.
Superpower geographies
Technological lifecycles
As cost falls the product sales
grow
Until newer and better
technology is introduced and
New technologies have
affordable
a distinct life cycle
P
o
p
u
l
a
r
i
t
y
Time
Life cycles have become shorter over time and the speed of
growth has increased
The main factor underlying all of these
technologies is access to wealth, but the next
slide outlines the complex factors involved
•All technology has a life cycle
•Life cycles have become shorter
over time.
•The speed of technological
change has increased.
•Decline begins when better
technologies become
mainstream.
•Technology can be fairly
unchanging until a sudden
discovery/breakthrough, such as
antibiotics, the internet.
•Controlling nature has increased
through history, reducing
environmental risk such as water
shortages, natural hazards,
pollution control.
Barriers: what factors control
access to technology?
Factor
Level of
economic
development
Physical
reasons
Political
reasons
Historical
reasons
Explanation
•MEDCs and TNCs invest more money into R&D, they
protect their innovations intellectual property rights
restricting access in LEDCs
•They have the money to invest in the infrastructure
required to support the technology e.g. a wireless or
hard-wired network for the internet
Some technologies are only suited to certain physical
locations
Some national governments limit access to technology
to ordinary citizens in order to control the information
that they send and receive
Historical development has a large influence on current
wealth
This includes political systems, early use of fossil fuels
and industrial revolutions
Examples
GlaxoSmithKiine Retroviral drugs for
HIV/AIDs. The G8, UN and WHO
hoped for universal access by 2010.
Brazil has started illegal, cheaper
copies.
HEP needs mountains, impermeable
rocks and high water input, solar
needs sun.....
China and control over Google
N Korea and mobile phone bans
Western European Industrial
revolution and colonial dominance
over especially Africa and India.
Japan’s post WW2 restructuring
investment by USA
Greenpeace , FoE- nuclear power &
GM production
Amish, Mennonites
Environmental
or social
reasons
Certain group shun certain technologies due to their
potential negative social or environmental impacts
Religious
reasons
Some religions do not believe in the use of certain
forms of technology
Catholics and artificial contraception
Military
reasons
The use of some weapons technology is controlled by
international organisations to try to maintain global
security
Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty
Attitudes to technology and
environmental determinism
Attitudes to technology
Techies
Positively seek out
and embrace
developments – the
early adopters of
new technology
Luddites and
Technophobes
People who are
opposed to
technological
change for various
reasons e.g.
Mennonites of
Belize
Countries like Bangladesh and Haiti
are examples of environmental
determinism. The causes of their high
risk may be split into 3 types, with the
type of technology set against them:
Natural hazardsreduces life
expectancy-
• warning systems,
• cyclone shelters,
afforestation,
• slope stabilisation
Poor health and low • disease-water and
sanitation problems
life expectancy
especially from
• low immunisationdisease
vaccination, medical tech
Malnutrition
Dominance of
agricultural low
wages
• farm technology to raise
yields,
• better transport to
distribute food…..
The Digital Age: background to the
patterns of access to technology
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The Technological Gap: Generally ,access is best in more developed nations, especially N
America, Eurasia and Australasia, and also much of S America. Worst access in sub Saharan
Africa and other Least Developed Countries such as Afghanistan, Myanmar.
Countries with the best access to knowledge are best placed to gain wealth. Affluent
countries invest more in education. The majority of R&D is in Western Europe, North
America and Japan – which receive high incomes from royalties and license fees
Electricity supply is a good indicator of interconnected power transmission, investment and
often high technology. It is essential prerequisite for modern life styles, from household
appliances, luxury goods to industrial processes.
The digital access index combines data on telephone landlines, mobile phone subscriptions,
cost of internet, adult literacy, school enrolment, internet band width, internet users &
broadband subscribers.
Hyperconnected places have a
digital access index of over 75.
They have the infrastructure to
support digital information
transfer and lower costs
because of competition.
NB the triad of economically
wealthy areas dominated by the
knowledge economy( E Asia, N
America, EU)
ICT is often said to be
persuasive or penetrative
because it needs less static
infrastructure e.g. mobiles,
satellites…
Under connected areas have a lower
access index: mainly less than 15
Examples: sub Saharan Africa,
Kenya.
These areas need support
technologies: wireless networks,
reliable power supply, internet service
provider companies, sales distribution
& repair network, useful websites &
software in familiar language
Modern technology and the Contested
Planet:
ICTs are an enabler of development:
•They can reduce social and economic inequalities
•Support local wealth creation
•Encourage entrepreneurs and innovations
•Improve efficiency in all aspects of life and commerce
•They ‘shrink’ distances and enable remote geographical
locations become included in core global trends
•Low cost technology once networks are established
•Newer technologies, e.g. WiFi do not depend on installed
infrastructures.
• Language technologies ensure that those without formal
education are provided with access to knowledge and
information using applications most suitable to their skill
level.
The UN Millennium Report stresses the importance
of ICT and digital inclusion to developing countries as
a fundamental element of human development,
calling for universal access to information and
communication services as agents of
development – contributing to the achievement of all
of the MDGs.
The most important technologies
for helping achieve MDG goals
are:
Communications and
networking technologies – e.g.
Cable/wireless networks
User devices –e.g. Mobile
phones, handheld computers,
smart cards, storage media,
global positioning system
receivers.
Alternative energy sources –e.g.
Portable solar chargers, wind-up
and solar rechargeable batteries,
fuel cells & wind generators.
Language technologies –e.g.
Text to speech, speech
recognition, handwriting
recognition, translation, e-mail,
blogs
Business applications – e.g. email
Measuring levels of technology
The 4 categories from high to low relate to investment opportunities .
Hotspots show the most extreme digital divide
Improvements show recent improvements in e-inclusiveness and very good opportunities for investment
•This Index shows the relative levels of access to information and
communication technology for 183 countries.
•Data is from 2007 International Telecommunication Union where
10 core ICT indicators are used: access to computers, including
internet, broadband access, mobiles and fixed lines.
•Mobiles are weighted since they are a key driver of access to
ICT in developing countries
Extre
me 02.5
Hotspots
High
2.5-5.0
Improvements
Mediu
m 5.07.7
Low
7.5-10
No
data
Digital
Inclusion risk
Index by
Maplecroft
foundation,
World
Economic
Forum 2009
Measuring the digital divide
World Internet penetration rates by geographic regions
2009 %
More than one fifth of the world’s population are
now online, but the majority are in developed
countries
Fixed broadband uptake is slow in many
developing regions.
While almost all countries now have
commercially deployed fixed broadband, the
service remains relatively expensive in many
developing countries and thus inaccessible to
many potential users.
3G phones, the 3rd generation of mobiles will
allow greater internet coverage
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CHINA'S INTERNET USE
Total users in 2009 : 298 million
Year-on-year increase: 41.9%
Mobile net users: 117.6 million
Internet penetration: 22.6%
NB strict government controls still
Technology and Development
The international Commission on
Growth and Development Growth in
2008 identified key factors for
sustained economic growth
-Engagement with the global economy
-Specialising exports
-Transfer of key technologies
SOCIAL GROWTH-health,
education, knowledge,
choices
ECONOMIC
GROWTH
Resources +
productivity
Technological change
Advances in communications
Agriculture, Industry
Energy + Water systems
Knowledge, creativity,
inventions
Resources
In order to develop countries need to
invest in innovation and education
Technology is a key driver in
promoting development,
Some areas have ‘Initial advantage’
fuelled by technology
Development is associated with
infrastructure to maintain innovation:
Universities, research, Government
sponsorship, TNCs, advanced legal
system-patent protection
reliable water, energy, transport,
health and communication systems
NB the concept of technological
leapfrogging
Costs and Benefits of technology: externalities and
unforeseen consequences
•The effects of a new technology
are not always foreseen, as
shown by the use of pesticides
DDT, and synthetic compound
CFCs.
• Cars are an iconic example of
a technology globally widely
adopted and treasured but which
has become a major contributor
to negative changes in our
environment through emissions.
•The ecological footprint may be
large for a resource to be
harvested and used.
•The controversy over genetic
modification of organisms shows
very different views by the
players involved
Effects of the Genetic
Modification
Revolution- Positive
externalities
Effects of the Genetic
Modification
Revolution- Negative
externalities
Food security not
always improved
especially in crop
growing country
Over reliance on TNCs
Increased yields,
products, exports
Social polarisation
over adoption or
rejection
More products and
more food security
Fears for biodiversity
such as cross
pollination not proven
to date.
less fertilisers,
pesticides needed
More resistant to
climate change
Key Principles in pollution control
Precautionary
Prevention
Try to stop at
source rather
than adapt
after created
E.g. Urban
Smokeless
zones, energy
efficiency
The UK
Environment
Agency’s
guidelines
Began 1992 Rio Earth
Summit,
linked with sustainable
development .
Where a threat appears to
be present, even if not
proven, action needs
taking to protect the
environment
E.g. reaction against GM
foods, 1987 Montreal
Protocol on CFCs and
Ozone depletion
Maastrict Treat of EU
Even Body Shop has it
enshrined in their
corporate plan.
2009 ban by EU of 22
commonly used chemicals
in agriculture
Polluter Pays
Means the costs of
cleaning up
pollution should be
borne by those
causing it. Started
by OECD
1972.reaffirmed at
Rio Summit
E.g.
Emissions Taxing in
UK and at
international scale:
1997 Kyoto Protocol
2009 Copenhagen
summit on
technology transfer
Most effective at long term scale?
Proximity
Principle
Pollution should be
tackled as near to the
source as possible,
contained, not allowed
to spread
This would apply to
e.g. river pollution
or exporting of toxic
waste to poorer less
restricted countrieseffectively global shift
of ecological
footprints!
3. Technology, the
environment and the future
You need to know about:
• The costs and benefits of intermediate / appropriate technology compared with hi tech
megaprojects: environmental impacts and social equity
• The role technology might play in global issues such as global warming and land degradation
and whether the fix is feasible or desirable
• The chances of technology contributing to a more environmentally sustainable future
• Ideas about the technological future – will it be:
 a divergent world with a ‘technologically fixed’ core and peripheral ‘technology impoverished’
periphery
 or a convergent world with ‘technology for all’
Pessimist – Malthus
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Original theory dates back to the
1798:Population grows at a geometric
rate whist food production increase at
arithmetic growth, The inevitable
overlap called overpopulation will result
in poverty, starvation and death.
Adopted by many environmental groups
and the think tank: the Club of Rome
1972 whose publication The Limits to
Growth warned of resource depletion
and environmental degradation.
More recently the publication ‘2030
Spike’ suggested a global catastrophe
by 2030
Points of view on
populationresources
relationship
Optimist -Ester Boserup
•
1965 theory that it is possible to
overcome environmental limits
through culture and technology
•
Necessity is the mother of invention,
and technological fixes can solve
problems as they arise
•
Evidence?
•
Green and gene Revolutions,
technology to help population control
such as the oral contraceptive.
•
1980s: USA Economist Julian Simon:
people+ markets are stimulated by
resource crises
Technology – the alternatives
High tech Megaprojects
–large scale to develop a high-income,
consumer economy, used to industrialise &
attract investment in a globalised world
where flagship projects are used as a
prestige factor.
E.g. civil engineering projects: dams,
airports, tunnels, motorways, power
stations, world’s tallest buildings........
Often top down, government or TNC led.
The World Bank is also a large player
Individuals often have little say in
development, and may have their rights
abused e.g. by forced move.
Large scale environmental
externalities
•
Appropriate
Technology –
Technology that
suits the level of
income, skill and
needs of the
local people.
This may be
intermediate or
high tech,
depending on
location
Intermediate
Technology – relatively
small scale usually low
capital but labourintensive technology
that can be mastered by
local people, especially
in the developing world
See slide 5 for more details, and the concept of technological leapfrogging
The Big Tech Fix! China and the
Three Gorges Dam
Technological fix for energy supply, water control and bridging the development
gap in China’s quest to become a world superpower
Main player : state-backed Yangtze Three Gorges
Dam Project Development Corporation.
Estimated costs $37bn!
The World Bank ,
traditionally a
major player in
megadam
projects, pulled
out of funding concerns over
negative impacts
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Environmentalists
concerned over
ecological effects :
disrupting silt and
nutrient balances
up and downstream
important for
ecosystems and
farmers.
The world's largest hydropower complex project to date in Xilingxia
gorge of Asia’s longest river, the Yangtze.
The main project was completed in 2008 and by 2011 it aims:
Supply 1/10th of Chinas present electricity demands- the hub of an
integrated energy supply for central China‘ with 3 regional grids
taking Three Gorges power, from the coast to the border of Tibet.
Reduce disastrous floods downstream
Improve navigability of the river to help trade within this ‘dragon
economy’
An iconic example of the Contested Planet because of the
viewpoints of the different players involved and their differing views
on the externalities produced
Human rights groups concerns
over forced relocation of
1.27m people
Technology
transfer; 6
groups of
European,
Brazilian and US
TNCs involved in
construction e.g.
GE and Siemens,
as well as
Chinese
companies
Sponsorship by
businesses in
USA and many
EU countries
including UK
Japan Ministry of
International Trade and
Industry supported
project to reduce acid
rain pollution from coal
fired power stations
falling on them!
Technological and attitudinal fixes: some overarching issues
Geoengineering is
planetary scale
engineering, the
ultimate tech fix e.g.:
• sulphur aerosols
• space mirrors
• ocean fertilisation
• synthetic trees
What is the
Problem?
Pollution,
Climate
change and
enhanced
global
warming
Biodiversity
under
threat
What Technology has been used/planned?
Role of Attitudinal Fixes?
1. At source and production of pollutant :
•Geo-engineering to reduce incoming
solar radiation
•Energy efficient technologies
•New/expanded existing low carbon
energy supplies- nuclear solar, HEP…
• carbon capture storage(unproven so far
at a large scale)
2. Reduce at user point : catalytic
converter
3. Reduce at sink: carbon sequestration
(forests, in rocks)
Sustainable logging by heavy equipment
and heli-logging
GIS and satellite surveillance to
monitor/help protect ecosystems
Life style changes- the 5 Rs: Resource
reduction reuse recycling Reducing
Respect
Carrot and stick policies by
governments- voluntary and forced
changes e.g.:
education and tax incentives to reduce
personal footprints
Ethical and environmental purchasing
from sustainable sources e.g. Forest
Stewardship Council certified products
Many environmentalists
argue against it because
it allows pollution to
continue- then applies a
fix to clean it up
Preferred: more
attitudinal changes and
less contentious
technologies: solar,
wind, geothermal,
microgeneration (house
scale)
In future? A hypothetical
Tech Fix : Terraformingmoving to a new
planet!
Technological and attitudinal fixes for energy,
water and development
Problem
Technology
•New sources of oil and new
pipelines
•New types e.g. tar sands, shales.
•Replace and supplement oil by
gas
•A ‘hydrogen economy’ or similar
alternative energy future for
example based on nuclear power.
• Switch to renewables, e.g.
biofuels, solar.
Water
•High tech Megafixes: dams,
Conflicts:
desalination plants, pipelines, canals,
supply and
tankers
quality
•Lower tech or more appropriate
technology: Taankas, microdams,
composting toilets
Bridging the
•Pharmaceutical research to find a
Development
vaccine or curative medicine.
Gap by tackling •The use of condoms, dams,
poverty and
antiretroviral drugs, semen washing,
health: coping
clean needles….
with HIV/AIDs
Energy
security
Oil shortages
and Peak Oil
fears
Attitudinal Fix
•Increased shared transportpublic transport
• Energy efficient transport
•Use of low carbon transport
•Reduction in water use
•Grey water recycling
•patents
sharing/agreements to
reduce drug costs
•Public health education to
prevent the spread of the
disease e.g. needles, safe
sex, abstinence, pre-natal
testing
•Women empowerment
Technology for all or some?
The Future?
Equality Does it
benefit everyone?
Is it pro-poor?
Cheap, accessible?
Minimal negative
externalities?
Futurity Will it
last?
Efficient use of
resources?
Low income groups
need easily
maintainable
technology
Public Participation
Is it bottom-up?
Are people
involved?
Environment Is it
eco-friendly?
Minimum waste,
pollution?
Carbon neutral?
Scenario
Evidence?
Sustainability? Meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the needs of
future generations....
A complex concept, difficult to assess, and
hotly contested when types of technology
are concerned
•Divergence
Convergence
•Business as usual: the
current model
•Are we too addicted to
technology?
Use of similar
technology
2007 IMF :the world has
become increasingly
unequal since 1980
Technology contributed
to this by increasing
inequality and
technological divergence.
It is not meeting main
challenges to date :fossil
fuel dominance, global
pollution, poverty,
environmental
degradation all at a
global scale
Global use of
internal
combustion
engine
Recent changes
in patent laws
New Green
revolution in
Africa using
appropriate
technology
transfers
Use of biofuels
A summary of The Technological Fix within the Unit 3 topics
Energy security
Water conflicts
Biodiversity under threat
•Technology efficiency
•Energy pathways
•Oil frontiers to counteract Peak oil –
•Alternative technology : a new atomic
age?
• Renewables technology
•The 5 Energy Rs ( refuse, reduce,
research, recycle, replace)
•Role of technology in the Sustainability
quadrant, and its role in ‘Business as
usual’ and Technological convergence
•Technology transfer
•Megaproject
•Water availability gap
•Economic water scarcity
•Abstraction technology
•Externalities created by large hard
engineering projects e.g. transfers , dams,
•desalinisation plants
•Water conservation: low tech and high tech
grey water, water harvesting, appropriate
technology , restoration projects.
•Threats on biodiversity and hotspots:
destruction and degradation.
•Sustainable yield concept
•Eco reserve management: use of
technology e.g. satellite monitoring ,
GIS 4-wheeled drives, guns.
•Seed banks, gene banks, zoos all
involve a technological fix.
Superpower geographies
Bridging the development gap
The Technological Fix
•Mechanisms of getting and maintaining
power
•Rise of BRICs and TNCs
•Military might- hard power mechanisms
e.g. surveillance ,nuclear deterrent.
•Economic trade and aid-trade
,communications technologies e.g.
outsourcing and FDI
•Culture and ideology transfers and
influence- media technology
•Technological gap and Digital Divide
between switched on and off areas
•Intermediate or appropriate technology
•Technology transfer
•Megacity growth facilitated by high rise
buildings, transport, communications
•2009 global depression fuelled by
interconnected world
•Technocentric world
•Lifecycle changes
•Digital technology
•Environmental determinism
•Technological leapfrogging e.g. mobile
phones
•Patents and Intellectual property rights
•Micro, Nano, + Bio technology
•Convergent and divergent scenarios
Attitudinal Fix to all?
Business as usual? Radical future? Sustainable development?