CHAPTER 12
MOTIVATION
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–1
LECTURE OUTLINE
• The nature of motivation
• Needs theories
• Cognitive theories
• Reinforcement theory
• Job design
• Social learning theory
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–2
NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is the force energising
and giving direction to behaviour.
It underlies the tendency to
persist.
It is a complex interaction of
behaviours, needs, rewards,
reinforcement and cognitive
activities.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–3
NATURE OF MOTIVATION
ability X motivation X environmental
conditions
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
=
performance
12–4
NEEDS THEORIES
• Hierarchy-of-needs theory
(Maslow)
• Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
• ERG theory (Alderfer)
• Acquired-needs theory
(McClelland)
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–5
NEEDS THEORIES
Hierarchy-of-needs theory (Maslow)
Theory arguing that individual needs
form a five-level hierarchy
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–6
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Self-actualisation
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–7
NEEDS THEORIES
Two-factor theory
(Frederick Herzberg, 1966)
Theory that hygiene factors (related to
work context) are necessary to keep
workers from feeling dissatisfied, but
only motivators (related to work
content) can lead workers to feel
satisfied and motivated.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–8
NEEDS THEORIES
• Hygiene factors
Factors seeming to make individuals feel
dissatisfied with their jobs (context)
• Motivators
Factors seeming to make individuals feel
satisfied with their jobs (content)
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–9
NEEDS THEORIES
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Hygiene factors
• PAY
• WORKING CONDITIONS
• SUPERVISORS
• COMPANY POLICIES
• FRINGE BENEFITS
These factors help prevent dissatisfaction.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–10
NEEDS THEORIES
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Motivators
• ACHIEVEMENT
• RESPONSIBILITY
• WORK ITSELF
• RECOGNITION
• GROWTH
• ADVANCEMENT
These factors promote satisfaction.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–11
NEEDS THEORIES
ERG theory (Alderfer)
Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs theory, which argues that there
are three levels of individual needs.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–12
NEEDS THEORIES
ERG theory (Alderfer)
• Existence needs
Material and physiological desires
• Relatedness needs
Need to be accepted and to interact
• Growth needs
Need for creativity, personal growth and productive
impact
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–13
NEEDS THEORIES
Existence needs
Physiological (food, water)
Pay
Benefits
Working conditions
Relatedness needs
Relationships with family,
work and professional
groups
Growth needs
Creativity
Innovation
Productivity
Satisfaction-progression
principle
Frustration-regression
principle
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–14
NEEDS THEORIES
Acquired-needs theory (McClelland)
Theory stating that our needs are not
innate, but acquired or learned on the
basis of our life experiences.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–15
NEEDS THEORIES
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland (1961)
Cites the needs for achievement, power,
and affiliation as major motives in work
Need for achievement—drive to excel
Need for power—influence others’ behaviour
Need for affiliation—desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–16
COGNITIVE THEORIES
• Expectancy theory
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–17
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Expectancy theory (Vroom)
Theory arguing that we consider
three main issues (effort-performance,
performance-outcome, and valence)
before we expend effort necessary to
perform at a given level.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–18
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Expectancy theory (Vroom)
• Effort-performance expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the
required level of performance.
• Performance-outcome expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our successful
performance will lead to desired outcomes.
• Valence
Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or
rewards.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–19
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Equity theory (Adams)
Theory arguing that we prefer
situations of balance, or equity.
Implications for managers:
–
–
Communication essential to assess
equity/inequity perceptions in employees
Complementary to expectancy theory
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–20
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory [technique] works
by focusing attention and action,
mobilising effort, increasing
persistence, and encouraging the
development of strategy to achieve
goals.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–21
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Theory arguing that our behaviour can
be explained by consequences in the
environment.
B. F. Skinner
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–22
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Types of reinforcement:
• Positive
Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to
encourage desired behaviour. Use of shaping.
• Negative
Stimuli (unpleasant) so an individual will engage in
the desired behaviour to stop the stimuli.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–23
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Types of reinforcement (cont.):
• Extinction
Stopping previously available positive outcomes
from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour.
• Punishment
Providing negative consequences to decrease or
discourage a behaviour.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–24
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Fixed interval:
given on fixed time
schedule. Uneven
responses; extinction
rapid if reinforcement
late, or stops
Fixed ratio:
given after fixed number
of cases of desired behaviour.
High response rates, rapid
extinguishment if stopped
even temporarily.
Variable interval:
given on variable or
random time basis.
High, steady
response rate, slow
extinguishment,
if stopped
Variable ratio:
given on variable or
random frequency
of behaviour basis.
High response rate,
very slow extinguishment
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
Using
reinforcement
theory:
encourage desired
behaviour, be clear
on what is desired.
Use variable interval
and variable ratio
reinforcement.
Punish moderately
severely and promptly.
12–25
JOB DESIGN
• Work specialisation - degree to which the work that
is needed to achieve organisational goals is
broken down into different jobs.
• Job design - specifying the task activities
associated with particular jobs.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–26
JOB DESIGN - APPROACHES
• Job simplification
• Job rotation
• Job enlargement
• Job enrichment
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–27
JOB DESIGN - APPROACHES
The job characteristics model (JCM)
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Feedback
…can make jobs more motivating
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–28
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social learning theory (Bandura)
Theory arguing that learning occurs
through continuous reciprocal
interaction of our behaviours, various
personal factors and environmental
forces.
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–29
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Learning occurs by continuous
interaction between our behaviours,
personal factors and environmental
forces:
• Symbolic processes
• Self-control/regulation
• Vicarious learning
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–30
LECTURE SUMMARY
• Nature of motivation
Motivational process
Motivation and performance
• Needs theories
Hierarchy of needs
Two-factor
ERG
Acquired needs
• Cognitive theories
Expectancy
Equity
Goal-setting
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–31
LECTURE SUMMARY cont’d
• Reinforcement theory
Positive, negative, extinction, punishment as
reinforcement
• Job design
Job simplification, rotation, enlargement,
enrichment - Job characteristics model
• Social learning theory
Symbolic processes, self-control, vicarious
learning
Copyright  2008 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 5e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Sharma
Slides prepared by Rob Lawrence, Victoria University (Australia)
12–32