The art of story-telling has been cultivated in all ages and among all nations of which we have any record; it is the outcome of an instinct implanted universally in the human mind.
—Edwin Sidney Hartland

•
Folk literature refers to a body of cultural knowledge and beliefs passed from one generation to the next, both orally and in writing.

• Myths
• Fairy tales
• Epics
• Fables
• Folk tales
• Folk songs/spirituals
• Legends
• Tall tales

What memorable characters do you associate with folk literature?
What makes these characters memorable?

• Folk literature can
– entertain readers
– enlighten readers by sharing the human condition or experience
– provide readers with an escape from reality
– help readers learn about themselves and others
– teach readers lessons in morality
– allow readers to explore diverse cultures

• Like fiction, folk literature has the elements of characters, plot, setting, and conflict.
• Folk stories also have their own distinct characteristics, including
– stereotypical characters (such as good/evil)
– plots that focus on an initial problem, a quest to solve the problem, and the tasks and obstacles involved in the journey
– settings in olden times and faraway places
– supernatural and repetitious elements

• Every early culture around the world created its own folk literature.
• Learning about these tales and songs can provide insight into the cultures that produced them.

• Much of the world’s early folk literature originated as part of the oral tradition.
– The oral tradition is the passing of a work, an idea, or a custom by word of mouth from generation to generation.
• Early stories were composed as poems, songs, or prose tales.

• Some early folk literature stories helped ancient inhabitants of Earth understand the unknown world around them.
• Other tales told of gods, goddesses, and heroes in their cultures.
• Still other stories related human experiences, ideas, and emotions to serve as moral lessons.

• As centuries passed, these early stories became the inspiration for many writers.
• These writers borrowed the characters, events, and ideas for their own works.
– In Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of Macbeth , the three witches are based on the Fates, who are characters in Greek mythology.
– The Fates controlled the lives and destinies of all humankind.

• The characters and events in early folk literature have also inspired artists.
• Many painters have drawn their subjects from mythology.
– For example, the fall of Icarus, a character in Greek mythology, is the subject of famous paintings by
• Pieter Brueghel
• Pablo Picasso
• Marc Chagall

• The influences of folk literature can also be seen in music, drama, and films.
• What familiar songs, plays, or movies include characters or events from fairy tales, folk tales, legends, or myths?

• In the past two centuries, there has been a renewed interest in folk literature.
• Storytelling spans all cultures, values, and ways of life, and has therefore gained worldwide attention.

• Epics are a very old form of folk literature, dating back more than 2,000 years.
• These ancient stories have remained popular for their ability to entertain readers.
• Epics often contain
– larger-than-life characters
– exotic settings
– suspenseful plots

There is only one thing which can master…epic material into unity; and that is, an ability to see in particular human experience some significant symbolism of man’s general destiny.
—Lascelles Abercrombie
How do the choices and actions of epic heroes reflect the struggles of humankind?

•
Epics are long narrative poems that portray the heroic acts of legendary figures and mythical gods.
• Grand in style, length, and scope, epics are portraits of cultures, including their
– legends
– beliefs and values
– laws and arts
– ways of life

• Epics began in the oral tradition, long before there were written historical accounts.
• The people of ancient Greece often turned to wandering poets, known as bards , to hear tales of the past.

• The bards of ancient Greece were masterful storytellers.
• They would sing or recite long narrative poems about the gods, goddesses, and heroes of days gone by.
• They would often accompany their tales by playing lyres— small, stringed instruments resembling handheld harps.

• These roaming storytellers would tell tales in exchange for food, housing, or money.
• Often, bards would be asked to recite their stories in the palaces of kings.
• Bards in the Anglo-Saxon culture, which produced the epic Beowulf , were known as scops or gleemen .

• The bard often improvised the tale, but typically
– started with an invocation, or a plea to the Muse
(goddess of poetry) for divine inspiration
– began the tale in medias res
, or “in the middle of things,” with the epic hero well into the journey
– used flashbacks to fill in prior incidents
– had the epic hero reach a point of defeat but continue on the quest
– ended the tale by revealing the epic hero’s fate

• In telling the tale, the bard used many “word formulas,” such as epithets and kennings.
• These phrases helped the bard to memorize the tale.

•
Epithets are brief descriptive phrases that emphasize an important characteristic of a person or thing.
• In
Beowulf
, the epithets “beloved lord” and
“glorious king” are used to describe Beowulf.

• A type of epithet common to Anglo-Saxon literature is a kenning.
• A kenning is an imaginative compound used in place of an ordinary noun.
• In the epic
Beowulf
, Beowulf’s route is called a “sea-road,” and the waves are called “ocean furrows.”

• Bards also used other types of figurative language in their tales, including
– similes
– metaphors
– hyperbole
• Using these elements helped the storytellers to paint vivid pictures for their listeners’ imaginations.

• A simile is a comparison of two seemingly unlike things, using the word like or as .
• A metaphor is a comparison of two seemingly unlike things in which one thing is spoken or written about as if it were another.
• See the next slide for a passage that illustrates both of these types of figurative language.

• What similes and metaphors are used in the following excerpt from Gilgamesh ?
He stood still watching as the monster leaned to make
His final strike against his friend, unable
To move to help him, and then Enkidu slid
Along the ground like a ram making its final lunge
On wounded knees. Humbaba fell and seemed
To crack the ground itself in two, and Gilgamesh
…stood over Humbaba with his ax
Raised high above his head watching the monster plead
In strangled sobs and desperate appeals
The way the sea contorts under a violent squall….
—from “The Head of Humbaba,” translated by Herbert Mason

•
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration made for effect.
• “[Humbaba’s] single stroke could cut a cedar down” is an example of hyperbole from the epic Gilgamesh .

• Another common device used in epics is alliteration , or the repetition of initial consonant sounds.
– These similar sounds appear at the beginnings of several words in close proximity.
• The use of alliteration helped the bards remember their tales.

•
Beowulf contains several examples of alliteration. What letters are used alliteratively in this passage from Canto 2?
Then, when darkness had dropped, Grendel
Went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors
Would do in that hall when their drinking was done.
He found them sprawled in sleep, suspecting
Nothing, their dreams undisturbed.
—from Beowulf , translated by Burton Raffel

• According to legend, Homer was the greatest of the ancient bards.
• Homer produced two famous works: The Iliad and
The Odyssey .
• These are considered the most important epics in the
Western tradition of folk literature.

• Besides the epics of Greece, other notable epics have originated in ancient cultures.
•
Beowulf was composed in the kingdom of
Northumbria or West Mercia (present-day
Great Britain) by an unknown bard or scop.
– Written in Old English,
Beowulf is the finest surviving example of an epic poem in the English language.

• The epic
Gilgamesh originated in
Mesopotamia.
–
Gilgamesh is the oldest epic poem: Parts of it were recorded on stone tablets around 2000 BCE .
– Its warrior-king hero, Gilgamesh, is considered to be the first superhero in literature.

• The epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana originated in India.
–
Mahabharata is the longest epic poem—seven times the length of both The Iliad and The
Odyssey .
•
Aeneid originated in the Roman Empire.
•
El Cid originated in Spain.

• Epics share certain characteristics, including
– larger-than-life heroes, or characters with superhuman strength and courage
– diverse, exotic settings
– plots that focus on a hero’s journey or quest
– conflicts involving struggles with gods or monsters that test the hero’s strength and wit
– themes that impart wisdom or morality to humankind

• Central to the narrative of an epic is the main character, known as the epic hero.
• An epic hero is an archetype, or type of character, that has been appearing in the literature of the world since ancient times.

• Historically, an epic hero is a male of royal lineage who possesses certain qualities that help or hinder him in his quest.
• These traits include
– courage
– arrogance or pride
– resourcefulness
– intelligence
– faithfulness
– vulnerability

• Although an epic hero possesses these human characteristics, he also has extraordinary or supernatural abilities.
• These abilities allow him to conquer monsters and other demonic creatures.

• Throughout the centuries, the definition of an epic hero has changed.
• Contemporary epic heroes may
– be male or female
– emerge from any social status
– undergo a spiritual, emotional, or physical journey

What heroes in contemporary literature are modeled after the epic hero archetype?

• The structure of an epic follows a distinct pattern known as an epic hero cycle.
• In an epic hero cycle , the hero is charged with a quest that tests his or her worthiness.
• This quest typically involves a battle with an evil force.

• Along the journey, the epic hero often enters a supernatural world and is assisted by many mythical creatures.
• Just when the hero feels defeated, he or she gathers resolve and eventually succeeds.
• In the end, the epic hero often ascends to the throne.

• The major themes of an epic are rooted in the culture that produces it.
• The themes of
Gilgamesh contain traces of mythology.
– Gilgamesh (a superhuman being who is two-thirds god and one-third mortal) and his ally Enkidu prevail over evil.
•
Beowulf also contains the theme of the triumph of goodness over evil, as well as the theme of honor and loyalty to a lord.

• Besides the triumph of goodness over evil, other common themes among epics include
– the quest for freedom
– the inevitability of suffering and self-sacrifice
– the value of life
– the importance of honor and loyalty to the leader of a kingdom

• Ancient epics are still relevant in contemporary society.
• After reading an epic, ask yourself:
– How does this epic offer insights into ancient cultures?
– How does it forge connections among diverse cultures?
– What aspects of humanity are shown in the choices and actions of the characters?
– What lessons in virtuous behavior are evident?