Roger Kaufman
and
Dale Brethrower
Performance Models
LaRae Alcidor
Chris Jackson
Eric Jackson
Charotte Long
Jing Wan
Stacy Weaver
Florida State University, EME 6691
Roger Kaufman
Organizational Elements Model (OEM)
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Father of Needs Assessment
Professor emeritus at Florida State University
Distinguished research professor, Sonora (Mexico)
Institute of Technology
The Organizational Elements Model:
 OEM provides guidance and direction for serious
performance improvement. It has five levels: three related
to ends and two levels related to means.
 A needs assessment is best done at each organizational
results level: Mega, Macro, and Micro.
Needs Assessment Theory & OEM
Need
Needs
Assessment
OEM
A need is a gap between current results and desired results.
“Need” is a noun.
A needs assessment identifies gaps between current and
desired results and places them in priority order, on the
basis of costs, to meet the needs as compared to the costs to
ignore the needs. (Compare costs to fix the problem with the
cost to ignore the problem)
OEM asks “What Should Be?” and compares it to “What Is?”
The differences are the performance gaps.
Five Organizational Elements
Societal Contributions and Consequences
(Mega)
Organizational Contributions
(Macro)
Ends
Organizational Accomplishments & Contributions
(Micro)
Activities
(Processes)
Resources
(Inputs)
Means
Mega, Macro, Micro,
Processes and Inputs
must be linked and aligned to
deliver organizational
improvement and measurable
success. Everything that is used
(Inputs) and done (Processes) as
well as individual (Micro) and
organizational contributions
(Outputs) deliver useful societal
results (Mega).
Features & Significance
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OEM is the only framework that has an explicit focus on external
contributions to external clients and society (Mega)
Each of the Organizational Elements is equally important and must be
linked and aligned within a strategic plan
There is an important focus on societal value for all stakeholders. By
analyzing the work and contributions from a systematic viewpoint, all
parts (working both independently and collaboratively) must add value
to the society as a whole
OEM relates organizational efforts, organizational results, and societal
effects
A main purpose is to help separate the means from the ends during an
organizational needs assessment
Provides an analysis of “what is” and “what should be” for organizations
Application
Level of Needs
Assessment
Mega
Use when the Organization...
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Macro
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Micro
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Relevant Needs
Assessment Model
Analysis Capacity
Recognizes that what they use,
do, produce, and deliver should
be aligned and add value to
internal and external clients,
including society
Wants to ensure long-term
survival and profitability
Kaufman’s OEM
Kaufman’s OEM uses a
series of analysis tools
(e.g. SWOT) to further
understand gaps and
solution requirements.
Recognizes that what they use,
do, produce, and deliver should
be aligned and add value to
internal and external clients
Wants to ensure profitability in
the short-term
Kaufman’s OEM
Rummler’s AOP
Rummler’s AOP depicts a
comprehensive analysis
process that links the
organizational or business
issues to critical job issues
and critical process issues,
including causal factors.
Recognizes that what they use,
do, produce, and deliver should
be aligned and add value to
internal stakeholders
Introduces changes that will have
an impact on job requirements
Kaufman’s OEM
Rummler’s AOP
Mager & Pipe’s
Model
The Mager and Pipe model
helps link human
performance gaps to causal
factors, and potential
solutions.
Summary & Discussion
Organizational success depends on a holistic approach that adds value to all
internal stakeholders and improves performance for those external to the
organization. The five organizational elements –Mega, Macro, Micro, Process, and
Inputs – must be defined with precision and must correlate to each other so that
whatever is used, done, produced and delivered adds value to the external clients
and society. Mega—societal value added—is vital and missing from most other
approaches to needs assessment and organizational planning.
Discussion Question: Think of an example of a company that
follows Kaufman’s OEM model and describe how that company
emulates the model. Be sure to give examples of each step (micro,
macro, and mega) for that company. Share your thoughts and
examples with the class.
Dale Brethower
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Professor of psychology at Western Michigan University and a
licensed clinical psychologist in Michigan
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Consulting editor for the Performance Improvement Quarterly
The Model:
 The model is meant to act as a basic concept to be used by
well-rounded performance technologists.
 The goal is to understand what compromises performance
and the components of a performance system.
Stimulus Control/Situated Learning and Performance
Behavior is influenced by the situation (learning and
performance are contextually driven). Failure to use
learned behavior in a similar situation
Four Principles
of the Model
Ex. Running away from a fire (Running into a fire)
Discriminative Control/Conceptual Learning
Identifying differences in situations that warrant a different
type of behavior
Ex.
Consequence Control/Motivated Learning
Learning what specific behaviors produce. Law of Effect,
learn from consequences (good and bad)
Ex. When my mom did ____, it usually meant ____
If first blank is positive, it usually means behavior
(reaction) would continue. If first blank is negative, it is
likely that behavior would not continue. positive =
increased behavior, negative =decrease behavior
Information Control/Intelligent Performance
Basis in motivated performance; performance must have a
goal or direction
Behavior is a function of what a person
brings to an experience and what the
environment provides B = F (P,E)
Ex. Tom played baseball for 10 years.
(experience) Tom is hired as the girls
softball coach. (environmental)
Assumptions of potential behavior are
based solely on personal characteristics not
accounting for a variability of individual
lives, circumstances, and background.
Ex. “Timothy is too short to stock the
shelves” (personal, limits performance) vs.
“Timothy would need a ladder to reach the
higher shelves” (Environmental, provides
framework for the needs of Timothy to do
his job)
Features & Significance
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Influenced by psychology and behavioral sciences
Uses principles that improve two kinds of performance: Individual and
Organizational
Good outcomes are a result of good intelligence gathering when trying
to optimize performance
Individual and organizational performance is interconnected
Systematically considers personal and environmental variables
Workplace environment supports the performance
Model is most effective when applied properly and with common sense
Application
Basic Principle of Psychology
Sarah can dance ballet. Sarah is hired as a jazz teacher. Sarah will need
new shoes and music to help teach jazz.
Stimulus Control/Situated Learning
Kim learned to count to 10 by tapping a pencil for each number.
Discriminative Control/Motivated Performance
When at home Jose speaks Spanish. When at school, Jose speaks
English.
Consequences Control/Motivated Performance
When mom comes home she makes John wash dishes. When dad comes
home he washes dishes with John. Now, when mom comes home John
stays in his room. When Dad comes home, John comes out of his room.
Information Control/Intelligent performance
Greg does poorly on test one. The teacher decides to sit down with Greg to
review the test in order to reveal where he is struggling.
Summary & Discussion
Basic principles of psychology guides this model. Four principles support how
environmental factors connect to performance. A common plight of the career
college student: turning theory into practice! Behavior is often predicated after
environmental factors are ignored. There is an emphasis on the environmental
meaning of intelligence; gathering information within organizations (intelligence
not only refers to individuals but also groups and the organization as a whole). It
is critical to separate the relevant sources from the irrelevant sources (problemsolving), look at similarities and differences, and then determine the appropriate
behavior. This model requires clear goals and objectives to influence individual
and organizational performance.
Discussion Question: Consider Brethrower’s performance model.
Think about an organization in which you are presently (or have
previously) been a member. Give an example of how each
principle applied to your organization. Share your thoughts and
examples with the class.
References
Kaufman, R., Needs Assessment for Organization Success, Alexandria: ASTD Press,
2013.
Kaufman, R., & Swart, W. (2009) Developing Performance Data for Making Useful
Faculty and Leadership Decisions: Needs Assessment as a Vehicle. Performance
Improvement Quarterly.
Dean, P. J. (n.d.). Dale M. Brethower Ph.D. The Knowledge Base of Human
Performance Technolgy.