• http://www.apworldhist.com/Europe_1450_-_1750_web.ppt
Richard Fitzsimmons
Strathallan School
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• Philip II of Spain has had a chequered reputation among historians, many of them polarised over his character, his policies and his legacy
• For some, Philip’s reign was a ‘golden age’, and he was Spain’s greatest monarch
• For others, Philip personified everything that was most sinister about Counter-Reformation
Catholicism
• But, it is not only the man who invites controversy – the rest of this course concentrates on the policies he pursued and the consequences of his actions – equally controversial and the subject of historical debate

• Born in 1527, brought up in a large household of 191 – rarely alone
– raised strictly by his mother (Isabel of Portugal) until her death in 1539 – father, Charles V rarely there (away 1529-33,
1535-6, 1539-41, 1543-57)
• From 1535 he had his own household under his ‘governor’, Don
Juan de Zuniga
• A sickly child –very ill in 1535 with gastric problems – dogged him for the rest of his life – became obsessed with his health
• Brought up a very devout Roman Catholic – legacy of his mother to play an important role in later life – sometimes he confused what was for God’s cause with his own … partic. in foreign policy
• Given a sense of duty and responsibility as Charles’ heir – dynastic concerns – attended Council meetings from age 12 –
Regent of Spain at 16

• Educated by tutor Juan
Martinez de Siliceo – governor Juan de Zuniga – skilful at hiding his feelings
• Primarily a Spanish emphasis in his learning – maths, architecture, geography, history, classical langs, but no contemporary langs – lack of skill in foreign langs plagued him throughout his reign.

• He preferred hunting to study.
• At age 14, given his own secretary – Gonzalo Perez
• 1542 – made his first ‘progress’ – travelling round Castile and
Aragon
• 1543 – Charles left for Germany, leaving Philip behind as Regent, aided by a group of highly experienced men including the
Duke of Alva, Cardinal Juan de
Tavera and Francisco de Los
Cobos
• 1543 - Philip married Maria of
Portugal (she died in July 1545 in childbirth)

• Assessments of Philip’s character have often been influenced by historians’ own prejudices
– J. L. Motley – ‘grossly licentious, cruel … a consummate tyrant’
– Henry Kamen – ‘Philip was by temperament tranquil, subdued and always in control of himself … as a person he was more gentle. He disliked war and violence…’
• They have concentrated on alleged character defects - cruelty, ambition, war-mongering, his religious obsession, his indecision etc, and rarely have achieved a balanced summary

• One area that has been most raked over has been
Philip’s seeming inability to make decisions, particularly in foreign policy.
• Geoffrey Parker advances one potential explanation for this – what he calls Philip’s ‘Zerodefects mentality’
• i.e. an obsessive drive not to make mistakes, and a fear of failure – may help explain why he had an almost pathological desire to control decisions
• wanted to prove himself worthy of his father Charles V, and to avoid the disgrace of failure
• this could lead to periods of deep depression e.g. over the
Netherlands in 1574-5, and Armada 1588.

• How far did he depend slavishly on the advice of his father ?
• He tended to withhold information from his ministers – led to confusion and perhaps competing advice
• Not good at delegation – tended to be overwhelmed by the sheer volume of government business
• BUT, did work very long hours conscientiously, sometimes at the expense of his own health

• Philip was King of Spain, but also separately
King of Aragon and Castile
• Duke of Milan
• King of Naples and Sicily
• Ruler of Sardinia
• Ruler of Franche-comte
• Netherlands – multiple titles depending on each province (17)
• Philip’s dominions were huge and, essentially, ungovernable as a unitary state.

• Philip’s dominions were huge and, essentially, ungovernable as a unitary state.
• He had different titles in each state, and consequently different powers
• He had to deal with a number of representative assemblies –
Cortes in Castile and Aragon, States-General in the
Netherlands
• Each territory guarded its ‘privileges’ jealously – made collection of taxation and use of military force difficult in his many wars
• The size of his empire, and the distances involved, made direct governance basically impossible and communication was extremely slow

• Charles gave Philip four sets of instructions, advising him in the art of government
– Nov 1539
– May 1543
– Jan 1548
– 1556
• Of these, the 1543 instructions were probably the most important and certainly the most comprehensive
• Laid down precise rules for government
• Gave advice on anticipated problems individual councillors any particular faction at court, or any individual

• In 1556 Charles V left an on-going war with Valois
France under Henry II – not going well on the
Netherlands border
• War in the Mediterranean against the Turks – in uneasy abeyance in 1550s
• An imperial treasury strained by almost 40 years of continuous warfare – bankruptcy was declared in 1557 (national debt 25.5 million ducats – annual income 3 million)
• Military forces stretched throughout the Empire

• J. Casey, ‘Philip II of Spain, the prudent King’ Teaching History 1997
• H. Kamen, Spain 1469-1714: A Society of Conflict.
• H. Kamen, Philip II of Spain.
• H. Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition.
• J. Kilsby, Spain: Rise and Decline, 1474 - 1643. (Hodder)
• A. W. Lovett, Early Habsburg Spain, 1517-1598.
• J. Lynch, Spain 1516 - 98; From Nation State to World Empire.
• D. McKinnon-Bell, Philip II (Hodder)
• N. G. Parker, ‘Philip II of Spain – a reappraisal.’ History Today 1979
• N. G. Parker, The Grand Strategy of Philip II.
• I. Thompson, War and Society in Hapsburg Spain.
• G.Woodward, Philip II. (Longman, Seminar Studies)
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