Exercise
Psychology
Day 26
Mental Health Aspects of
Exercise
Stress Reduction Effects of Exercise:
Evidence and Mechanisms
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Reduced state and trait anxiety due to the
rhythmic-nature of exercise that stimulates an
inhibitory or relaxation site in the brain stem of
the CNS quieting cognitive activity associated
with anxiety
Reduced depression due to the release of
biogenic amines (e.g., serotonin and
norephinephrine) in the brain and/or the social
interaction and increased self-efficacy from
exercise
Cognitive Benefits
Cognitive Benefits
Cognitive Benefits
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Vascular Changes - increased cerebral blood flow
Neurotrophic factors - increased neurotransmitter
levels (e.g., dopamine) in the brain
Neural efficiency improved in the brain
Fluid intelligence (reasoning or problem solving)
improved more than crystallized intelligence
(accumulated knowledge, word recognition, and
recall facts)
Genetic basis for loss of cognitive functioning in the
elderly suggests physical inactivity may be more
detrimental to some than others
Goal Setting
Goal Setting
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Progressive standards of success (shortterm goals) are set to increasingly
approximate a desired standard of
achievement (long-term goal)
Goal setting is not a one-size-fits-all
endeavor
• Identify the client’s or athlete’s true
wants and needs
Setting Goals for Feedback and
Reinforcement
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Long-term (L-T) goal provides a meaningful pursuit
for client/athlete
Short-term (S-T) goals provide a strategy to achieve
the long-term goal via attainable steps
• Feedback is inherent in the completion of or
progress toward the S-T goal and leads to the
cognitive evaluation of success or failure
• An effective yet challenging goal is one that has
about a 50% chance of success
• Successful achievement of S-T goals leads to
behavioral reinforcement and the development
of self-esteem and self-efficacy
Types of Goals
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L-T and S-T goals vary for each client/athlete;
higher or greater the L-T goal, more S-T
incremental goals are needed to reach L-T
goal
Types of Goals Based on Personal Control
• Process goals - client/athlete has a high
degree of control over
• Outcome goals - client/athlete has little
control over
• Performance goals - fall in between in
relation to control
Process Goals
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Effort given during a workout
Exercise form and technique
Positive attitude during workout
Important for maintenance of exercise behavior
as success or goal accomplishment becomes
increasingly difficult
Outcome Goals
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Progress or accomplishments gauged by
social comparison (winning or beating an
opponent)
Can be highly arousing and induce great
intensity for competitive individuals
Probability of success is less for outcome
goals compared to process goals as
outcome of success is dependent on the
performance of others and hence success
can not be guaranteed
Performance Goals
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More difficult to achieve than process goals
Typically stated in terms of a self-referenced
performance standard for the client/athlete
Examples
• Increasing strength or cardiorespiratory
fitness level
• Reducing percent body fat
Example of Setting a Performance Goal
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Average 3 to 5 recent 1-RM efforts in the bench
press
Calculate the difference between the average 1-RM
and best 1-RM
Add the difference to the best 1-RM to determine
performance goal
Recent 1-RM efforts in bench press were 140 lb,
145 lb, 150 lb
Average = 145 lb, best = 150 lb, difference = 5 lb,
and new performance goal is 155 lb
Diversified Goal Setting
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Successful goal-setting program should include a
diverse combination of short-term and long-term
goals as well as process, outcome, and/or
performance goals depending on the client/athlete
During the consultation and assessment session
with a new client/athlete, the trainer should
maintain focus on the client’s or athlete’s desired
goals and expected outcomes, and should develop
a sound plan of action
Goal Orientations
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Clients or athletes who gauge their performance
or fitness improvement on the basis of previous
ability or fitness level are said to be tasked
involved and process and performance goals
would probably be best
Clients or athletes who gauge their performance
or fitness improvement on comparison to the
performance of one or more others are said to
be ego-involved or other-referenced and
process and outcome goals would probably be
best
Tips for Effective Goal Setting
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Identify the client’s or athlete’s needs and desires
and plan long-term goals
Identify steps and short-terms goals that will lead
to long-term achievement
Initial goals may best be process goals
Develop knowledge-based goals to compliment the
performance and/or fitness goals
Gradually add in more aggressive and measurable
outcome and performance goals
Sent a time frame for the attainment of measurable
outcome and performance goals
Tips for Effective Goal Setting
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Agree on a way to determine if the program is
working toward the goals
After setting goals, make sure client believes that
the goals are obtainable
Examine the goals to make sure the goals are
compatible with one another
Goals should be prioritized
Attach a time frame to each goal and note if a goal
is not achieved by the assigned date
Goals can and should be evaluated and adjusted at
regular intervals
Motivation
Motivation
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Internal drive or neural process that
arouses and directs behavior
Two dimensions of motivation
• Direction aspect that affects choices
about time and commitment to exercise
and other program goals
• Intensity with which choices are
pursued
Reinforcement
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Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a
target or operant behavior will be repeated
Positive reinforcement gives something to a
client/athlete in response to a behavior (e.g.,
social approval or congratulations on a good
workout)
Negative reinforcement takes something away
from a client/athlete in response to a behavior
(something aversive is removed or taken away to
reward behavior such as not requiring clients or
athletes to rack their plates after a good workout
is completed)
Punishment
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Punishment decreases the likelihood that
a target or operant behavior will be
repeated
Positive punishment involves presentation
of something aversive such as criticism of
a client for poor exercise techniques
Negative punishment involves removal of
something in order to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior such as removal of
a privilege because of poor exercise
techniques or failure to reach a goal
Self Determination or Internalization
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Intrinsic motivation - engaging in a behavior for the
sense of enjoyment derived for it; true love for the
experience of exercise a sense of fun during its
performance
Extrinsic motivation - engaged in a behavior to
achieve another goal or outcome; desire to be
engaged in a behavior to get an external reward
Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation lies on a
continuum
Intrinsic motivation typically results in greater
exercise adherence
Important to know where a client or athlete falls on
the continuum of motivation
Major Points on the Continuum from External
to Internal Motivation of a Client/Athlete
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Amotivation - total lack of motivation
External regulation - engagement in a behavior to
avoid punishment
Introjected regulation - engagement in exercise as
a means to a valued end
Identified regulation - follows trainer’s leadership
because it is perceived as beneficial instead of
personally initiating exercise behavior
Integrated regulation - personally values exercise
behavior, internalizes it, and freely engages in it;
client/athlete and trainer agree on the goals of the
client
Effect of Rewards
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External rewards can play a role in
increasing intrinsic motivation and
exercise adherence
Rewards can also reduce intrinsic
motivation if they are “controlling”
Rewards can be viewed as “controlling” if
the recipient perceives a contingency or
connection between the behavior and the
reward; removal of the reward may
decrease the likelihood of the intended
behavior occurring
When to Intervene with Motivational Efforts
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The transtheoretical model helps identify the
stage of readiness for exercise participation
By identifying a client’s or athlete’s stage of
readiness, the trainer can apply the
appropriate processes for change or
interventions in order to move the client or
athlete to the next level with the ultimate
goals of action and maintenance
Stage of Readiness of a Client or Athlete
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Precontemplation - no thought or intention of
becoming physically active
Contemplation - thinks about and intends to
become physically active; not physically active yet
Preparation - accumulates 30 minutes of moderateintensity physical activity one day per week
Action - accumulates 30 minutes of moderateintensity physical activity five or more days per
week, but has done so for less than six months
Maintenance - accumulates 30 minutes of
moderate-intensity physical activity five or more
days per week for more than six months
Self-Efficacy: Building Confidence
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Performance accomplishments or successful
performance of a behavior
Modeling effects or observing others perform a
target behavior enhances imitative behavior
Verbal persuasion from a respected source
Before or during exercise physiological
arousal/self-belief can increase self-efficacy
whereas anxiety/disbelief can decrease selfefficacy
Achieving success has more impact than anything
else on raising self-efficacy
Methods to Motivate a Client
Minimizing Procrastination
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Almost everyone believes health and fitness are
desirable attributes, but only a small percentage of
the population commits to and maintains a healthy,
exercise lifestyle
Procrastination may occur if a client/athlete
believes that there are too many options in diets,
exercises, devices, training methods, etc
Trainers need to provide a decisive leadership role
through the many options so that a client/athlete is
not left in a frozen or indecisive state trying to
decide in the perceived pain outweighs the
potential benefits
Identifying False Beliefs
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Because of the many ‘quick fixes’ positioned
as solutions, clients/athletes may have
allowed false beliefs and information into
their belief system
False beliefs and information need to be
eliminated before a trainer can install new
empowering beliefs and information
An effective line of communication between
the trainer and client/athlete must be
established through which education and
reasoning can be effectively communicated
and instilled
Identifying and Modifying Self Talk
‘His or Her Internal Voice’
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Positive self talk can be very motivating
Negative self talk makes it almost impossible
for a client/athlete to accept even the most
positively directed affirmations
Positive affirmations will be more effective if
the client/athlete changes the negative
self-talk first
Modifying Self Talk
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Ask client/athlete to notice and think about the
types of his/her self-talk self talk during the day
Ask the client/athlete to identify his/her self talk
before and during training sessions
Have client/athlete write down negative self talk on
the left side of a piece of paper and on the right
side how the self talk could be changed to be
supportive or motivating instead
Have client recite and rehearse the new, positive
affirmations
External encouragement will be more effective if
the client/athlete changes his/her self-talk first
Motivational Strategies
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Define your goals
Set realistic goals
Exercise with a group
Exercise with a buddy
Recruit the support of significant others
Associate with other exercisers
Schedule a definite time and place for exercise
Build on successful experiences
Exercise to music
Participate in a variety of activities
Keep a progress chart or daily log
Other Psychological Tools for
Performance Enhancement
Mental Imagery
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A cognitive psychological skill in which the
client/athlete uses all of the senses to
create a mental experience of the
performance
The client/athlete stimulates reality by
mentally rehearsing a movement and/or
imagining visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
olfactory, and even exertional cues
Hypnosis
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An induced state of hyper-suggestibility
Positive suggestions relating to a client’s
or athlete’s performance potential are
planted in the subconscious mind
Systematic Desensitization
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A technique that helps a client/athlete
initially confront or reduce fears, which
may have arisen from an association of
previously neutral stimuli with a stressful
event(s)
Involves counter-conditioning in which an
athlete replaces a fear response to various
cues with a relaxation response
Physical Relaxation Techniques
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Diaphragmatic breathing - involves belly
breathing which focuses on breath (a
controllable aspect of physiology) to clear the
mind and therefore increase attentional
capacity
Physical Relaxation Techniques
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Progressive muscular relaxation - a
somatopsychic technique by which
psychological and physical arousal are
self-regulated through the control of
muscular tension; involves performance of a
series of alternate muscular tensing and
relaxing phases in which the individual
becomes aware of somatic tension and
learns to control it
Physical Relaxation Techniques
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Autogenic training - an attentional state that
focuses on the sense of warmth and
heaviness of a particular limb or muscle
group shifting autonomic neural processes
from sympathetic dominance to
parasympathetic dominance
References
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Earle and Baechle - Chapter 8
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Course Reader - Section 32
QUESTIONS?
COMMENTS?
Identifying and Modifying Self Talk