Chapter 17
Late Adulthood:
Physical and Cognitive
Development
Development Across
the Lifespan
Physical Development in Late Adulthood





There are more than 60, 000 people in the
United States who are 100 or more years of
age!
By the year 2020, there will be over 200,000
The mean life expectancy of people in Western
countries continues to rise
Old age used to be equated with loss: loss of
brain cells, loss of intellectual capabilities, loss
of energy, loss of sex drive.
This view is changing!
GERONTOLOGISTS, specialists who
study aging, now see late adulthood
as a period of considerable diversity
in which people change--growth in
some areas, decline in others.
Even the definition of “old” age is
changing:
Functional ages are often
considered in addition to
chronological ages…
Functional Age Categories
 Young old
– Healthy & active
 Old old
– Some health problems & difficulties
with daily activities
 Oldest old
– Frail & in need of care
~ Chronological age can sometimes
predict which group a person is likely
to fall into, but it is not a sure thing!
Aging: Myth & Reality


Because people are living longer, late
adulthood is increasing in length.
Late adulthood is considered to begin
at about 60, and ends at death.
-- In 1900, only 6 % of the population
was age 60 or older.
-- By 1990, more than 17 % are 60 or
older.
-- The number of people over age 85 is
projected to increase from 4 to 18
million by 2050! (see next slide)
The Flourishing Elderly
Think about what factors are contributing
to the rise in the population of those over
65.
The Demographics of Late Adulthood
 Projections into the year 2050 estimate
that almost 25 % of the population will be
over 65.
 The fastest growing segment of the
population is what is termed the oldest
old, people who are 85 or older. This
group's size has nearly doubled in the
last 20 years.
 This trend is occurring in every
developed country in the world.
The Elderly Population Worldwide
Ageism:
Confronting the Stereotypes of Late
Adulthood




AGEISM, prejudice and discrimination
directed at older people, is manifested in
several ways.
Negative attitudes about older people,
especially about competence and
attractiveness.
Job discrimination
Identical behavior by an older person and a
younger person is interpreted differently.
 People talk baby talk to persons in
nursing homes.
 Most negative views are based on
misinformation about older people
(take the myths of aging quiz in
your text)
 Important to remember that the
outcomes of aging vary widely from
one person to the next! The autumn
& winter of life can bring as much
positive change & growth as in
earlier life periods.
Physical Transitions in Older People:
Outward Signs of Aging
Although the physical capabilities of elderly
people are not the same as they were in earlier
stages of life, many older people remain
remarkably agile and physically fit in later life.
 One of the most obvious outward signs of aging
is the hair.
– gray or white
– thinner
– The face and other parts of the body become
wrinkled as the skin loses elasticity and
collagen, the protein that forms the basic
fibers of body tissue

~ People may shrink as much as 4 inches.
 cartilage in backbone becomes thinner
 women are most susceptible if they have
OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the
bones become brittle, fragile, and thin,
often brought about by a lack of calcium in
the diet.
 25 % of women over 60 have osteoporosis.
 Osteoporosis is the primary cause of
broken bones.
 Osteoporosis is largely preventable with
sufficient calcium and exercise.

Negative stereotypes against
appearing old exist for both men
and women
 Women, especially in Western
cultures, suffer from the double
standard for appearance, where
women who show signs of aging are
judged more harshly than are men.
– Women are more likely to dye
their hair.
– Women are more likely to have
plastic surgery.
Internal Aging
Significant changes also occur in the internal
functioning of the organ systems.
 The brain becomes smaller and lighter with
age.
– There is a reduction of blood flow to the
brain.
– The space between the skull and the
brain doubles from age 20 to 70.
– The number of neurons, or brain cells,
declines in some parts of the brain,
though not as much as was once thought.




Because of hardening of the arteries
and shrinking of blood vessels, a 75year-old's heart pumps less than
three-quarters of the blood it pumped
during early adulthood.
The efficiency of the respiratory
system declines with age.
The digestive system produces less
digestive juice and is less efficient in
pushing food through the system
(result = more constipation).
Changing
Physical
Capacities
Slowing Reaction Time
~ Older adult's reaction time slows significantly.
 The PERIPHERAL SLOWING HYPOTHESIS
suggests that overall processing speed
declines in the peripheral nervous system
(spinal cord and brain).
 The GENERALIZED SLOWING HYPOTHESIS
is the theory that processing in all parts of
the nervous system, including the brain, is
less efficient.
– It takes older individuals longer to respond
– Decision processes are slowed down
– Older people have more accidents (next
slide)
~~Although it takes individuals longer to
respond, the perception of time increases
with age!
– Time generally seems to rush by faster for
older adults than younger ones
– The reason may be changes in the way the
brain coordinates it internal time clock
(Mangan, 97)
Vehicle Fatalities Across the Life Span
Drivers over age 70 have a fatal accident record
comparable to teens. Why?
The Senses: Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell
 Old age brings a distinct declining in the
sense organs of the body.
 Vision
– Lens becomes less transparent and the
pupils shrink.
– The optic nerve becomes less efficient.
– Distant objects become less acute.
– More light is needed to see and it takes
longer to adjust to a change from light to
darkness and vice versa.





Driving at night becomes difficult.
Reading becomes more of a strain
and eye strain occurs more easily.
Cataracts, cloudy or opaque areas
of the lens of the eye that interfere
with passing light, frequently
develop.
Cataracts can be surgically
removed.
Intraocular lens implants can
replace old lens




Glaucoma occurs when pressure in the
fluid of the eye increases, either because
the fluid cannot drain properly or because
too much fluid is produced.
Glaucoma can be corrected with drugs or
surgery.
It must be detected early enough.
The most common cause of blindness in
people over the age of 60 is age-related
macular degeneration (AMD) which affects
the macula, a yellowish area of the eye
located near the retina at which visual
perception is most acute.
( Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell in Late
Adulthood, continued)
 Hearing
–
30 % of adults between 65 and
74 have some hearing loss.
– 50 % of adults between over 75
have hearing loss.
– High frequencies are the hardest
to hear.




Hearing aids would be helpful 75
percent of the time but only 20 percent
of people wear them.
They are imperfect and amplify all
sounds so it is difficult to discern
conversations.
There is a stigma attached to wearing
a hearing aid.
Because they cannot hear, some
people withdraw from society because
they feel left out and lonely.
( Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell in Late Adulthood,
continued)
 Taste and smell
– Both senses become less discriminating in
old age.
– Due to decline in taste buds on tongue.
– Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and
reduce the ability to smell.
– People eat less and get poor nutrition.
– Older people may oversalt their food and
develop hypertension, or high blood
pressure
Health and Wellness in Late Adulthood
 Contrary to popular opinion, most
elderly people are in relatively
good health for most of old age:
¾ of people 65 and older rate
their health as good, very good,
or excellent.
 Most older people have at least
one chronic, long-term condition.
Common Physical Disorders
in Late Adulthood…



Arthritis, an inflammation of one or
more joints, is common, striking
around half of older people.
Approximately one-third of older
people have hypertension, or high
blood pressure.
The leading causes (three-fourths of
all deaths) of death in elderly people
are: heart disease, cancer, and
stroke
Psychological & Mental Disorders
15 to 25 % of those over age 65 show some
symptoms of psychological malady.
 Depression is one of the more common
problems for this age group
– Characterized by intense sadness,
pessimism, and hopelessness.
– May be a result of cumulative losses in life.
– Declining health may contribute.
 Some psychological problems such as
anxiety may be caused by inappropriate drug
doses





The most common mental disorder of old
people is DEMENTIA, a broad category
covering several diseases, each of which
includes serious memory loss accompanied
by declines in other mental functioning.
Signs are declining memory, lessened
intellectual abilities, and impaired judgment.
Less than 2 % of people between the ages
of 60 and 65 have it; percentages double
every 5 years after 65.
1/3 of those over 85 suffer from some sort
of dementia



The most common form of dementia
is ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, which
is a progressive brain disorder that
produces loss of memory and
confusion.
Alzheimer's kills 100,000 people a
year.
If current trends continue, by the
year 2040, almost 7 million
Americans over 85 will be victims.
The symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease
appear gradually.





Unusual forgetfulness.
Trouble recalling particular words
during conversation.
First recent memory goes, then older
memories.
Eventually, total confusion, inability
to speak intelligibly or to recognize
family and friends.
Toward the end, loss of muscle
control and confinement to bed.
There is no cure for Alzheimer's.
 Biologically, problems with protein
production occurs.
–
The brain shrinks, and several areas of
the hippocampus and frontal and
temporal lobes deteriorate, certain
neurons die, and create a lack of
acetylcholine.
No known triggers are understood to cause
Alzheimer's, but it runs in families.
 Genetics clearly play a role
 High blood pressure & diet may
increase susceptibility
 Viruses, immune system dysfunction,
hormone imbalances being
investigated as possible explanations
No cure, but symptoms treated…
 Several drug treatments appear
promising: Tacrine, or Cognex, which
are forms of acetylcholine
– Only helps about 20 percent.
– No drug treatment is totally
effective.
 Anti-inflammatory drugs promising
 Vitamin E and C are currently being
investigated as extremely effective at
relieving symptoms
Because all Alzheimer patients are
eventually bedridden, many end their
lives in nursing homes
 2/3 of those in nursing homes!
~ People who care for Alzheimer’s often
become secondary victims
 Stress
 Overwhelming care demands
~Therapy & support groups often help a
great deal!
~See tips for caring for people with
Alzheimer’s Disease in your text.
Wellness in Late Adulthood

People can do specific things to enhance their
physical and psychological well-being and
their longevity during old age.
 Eat a proper diet.
– 16 % to 50 % of the elderly do not have
adequate nutrition.
– It is difficult to shop and cook for oneself.
– Little motivation to eat when living alone.
– Taste and smell deteriorate and eating is
not as enjoyable
 Exercise.
 Illness may prevent older
people from exercising.
 Poor health or nutrition may
reduce energy.
 Avoid threats to health, such
as smoking.
A recent study of 7000+ men aged 40-59 found that not smoking,
keeping weight down, & exercising can reduce disease.
To find your body mass index (BMI, used above), multiply your weight
in pounds by 705. Divide the result by your height in inches, then
divide by your height again.
~~ Sometimes older people experience
unique problems that keep them from
following these guidelines…
~~> Getting enough exercise may be
problematic
--decreased muscle strength &
flexibility
--illness, weather, poor nutrition
~~> 16-50% of the elderly do not have adequate
nutrition
~~ Several million go hungry each day
--too poor to buy healthy food
--too sick to shop or cook for
themselves
--lower motivation since cooking for
one
--declines in earlier taste and smell
sensitivity
--lifelong patterns





Sexuality in Late Adulthood:
Use it or lose it
Increasing evidence suggests that people are
sexually active well into their 80s and 90s.
Good physical and mental health are
necessary.
Previous sexual activity increases the desire
for sex - "Use it or lose it."
2/3 of men and women over age 70 had sex
with their spouses on average about once a
week.
The percentage of people who view their
partner as physically attractive increases
with age…
More than 50% of Americans over age 45 find their
partners attractive, and as time goes on, more
attractive.
 There are potential difficulties related to sexual
functioning
– It takes men longer to get an erection, and they
have a longer refractory period (time following an
orgasm during which men are unable to become
aroused again)
– women's vaginas sometimes become thin and
inelastic, and produce less lubrication
~ Despite these physical changes, sexual activity
can continue and flourish throughout the lifespan
~ Studies: having sex regularly is associated with a
lower risk of death (Purdy, 1995, Davey et al.,
1997)
Theories of Aging…
There are 2 major approaches to explain why
we age.
 GENETIC PREPROGRAMMING THEORIES OF
AGING suggest that our body's DNA genetic
code contains a built-in time limit for the
reproduction of human cells.
– May be due to fact that genetic material has
a "death gene" that is programmed to direct
the body to deteriorate and die.
– May be that genetic instructions for running
the body can be read only a certain number
of times before they become illegible

 WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORIES OF
AGING argue that the mechanical
functions of the body simply wear out
with age.
–
–
Some subtheories say that the body's
constant manufacture of energy to fuel its
activities creates by-products, which
eventually reach such high levels that
they impair the body's normal functioning.
This is a more optimistic theory, which
suggests that longevity can be extended
by eliminating the toxins produced by the
body.
Life Expectancy: How Long Have I Got??





LIFE EXPECTANCY, the average age of
death for members of a populations, has
been steadily increasing.
In 1776, the average life expectancy was 35.
In 1900, the average life expectancy was 47.
In 1996, the average life expectancy is 74.
By 2050, the average life expectancy is
predicted to be 80.
Living to Age 100
If life expectancy continues to increase, it may be
common for people to live to be 100 by the end of this
century. What implications does this have for society?
Reasons for increases in life
expectancy…
– Health conditions are better.
– Many diseases are wiped out or
better controlled through medicine.
– People's working conditions are
better.
– We are working on improving
environmental conditions.
The maximum possible human life span is
believed to hover around 120.

To extend the maximum life span would probably
take genetic alterations.
Figures for life expectancy mask individual
gender, race, and ethnic disparities.
The average Caucasian in the U.S. is likely to live
76 years.
The average African-American is likely to live 71
years.
The average Japanese is likely to live 79 years.

The average Gambian is likely to live less than 45 years.




A male born in the U.S. is most likely to live 73
years.
 A female born in the U.S. is most likely to live 80
years.
 Possible reasons women live longer:
– Women's hormones (estrogen and
progesterone) protect them from heart
attacks.
– Women may eat more healthy diets than men.
– Women experience less stress in the
workforce than men (Do you agree with this?
What about gender role strain & the pressure
of combining paid and nonpaid work?)

~ Racial disparities may reflect societal &
cultural differences…
Better eating habits (Japanese)
Lower socioeconomic well-being (AfricanAmericans).
Food quality
Ability to obtain health care
 Time for rest/relaxation/exercise
* In contrast to Caucasians, whose life
expectancy keeps edging up, African
Americans have actually experienced slight
declines in life expectancy in recent years.
Life Expectancy of African Americans & European Americans
Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
 The idea that older people become less
cognitively adept comes from
misinterpretations of research evidence
– Cross sectional research does not
take cohort effects into account
(influences attributable to growing
up in a particular time period/era).
– Longitudinal studies suffer from
practice effects and sample
attributions
 Recent research (by Schaie) used cross-sequential
methods, which combine cross-sectional and
longitudinal methods
– Included 500 subjects (aged 20-70)
– Tested every 7 years
– More subjects added (to total 5,000)
~~ Results show no uniform pattern of adult agerelated changes across intellectual abilities!
--Some abilities decline beginning at age 25 (fluid
intelligence [ability to deal with new situations])
--Some stay steady or increase (crystallized
intelligence [acquired store of information, skills,
strategies])
Changes in Intellectual Functioning (Schaie, 1994)
Although some intellectual abilities decline across
adulthood, others stay steady.
There were some individual differences in the
patterns of change…
 For some, intellectual skills began to decline in
the 30’s
 Others showed NO decline until the 70’s
 1/3 in their 70’s scored higher than the
average young adult
--Why?
Certain environmental and cultural factors are
related to greater or lesser intellectual decline
(environmental and cultural factors related to
greater or lesser intellectual decline, continued)
 Lesser declines
– Good health
– Higher SES
– Involvement in an intellectually
stimulating environment
– A flexible personality
– Being married to a bright spouse
– Feeling satisfied with one’s
accomplishments in earlier periods of late
adulthood
 Schaie & Willis taught people whose
reasoning and spatial skills had
declined a variety of skills. More than
½ showed a significant improvement
 This plasticity (modifiability of
behavior) suggests that there is nothing
fixed about the changes that may occur
in intellectual abilities during late
adulthood (“use it or lose it”).
Memory in Late Adulthood
 Cross-cultural memory research
shows that in societies where older
people are held in high esteem, people
are less likely to show memory losses
than in societies where they are held
in less regard!
Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 When memory declines that can be directly
attributed to aging do occur, they are limited
primarily to episodic memory
– Episodic memory relates to specific life
experiences
 Other types of memory are mostly unaffected by
age
– Semantic memories (general knowledge &
facts)
– Implicit memories (memories that people are
not consciously aware of)
Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 The capacity for new memories does
change during late adulthood
 Short-term memory declines gradually
until age 70, and then becomes more
pronounced (less gradual)
– Information presented quickly and verbally
is forgotten sooner
– New information is more difficult to recall,
perhaps because it is not processed as
efficiently
Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 In late adulthood, people are subject to
some of the same principals of recall as
younger people
 In both groups, autobiographical
memory (memories of information
about one’s own life) frequently
follows the Pollyanna Principal
– Pleasant memories are more likely to be
recalled than unpleasant memories
Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 People in all stages of adulthood also
are more likely to recall things that fit
with their current self-view
 Particular periods of life are
remembered more easily than others for
adults
– 70-year olds recall their 20s and 30s
best
– 50-year olds recall their teenage years
and 20s best
Remembrances
of Things Past
Explanations of memory changes in late
adulthood tend to fall into 3 main
categories:
1) Environmental Factors
~ Certain things that cause declines in memory
may be more common among older people…
 drugs
 retirement
 lower motivation in testing situations
(3 main categories of memory changes,
continued)
2) Information Processing Deficits
 Inability to inhibit irrelevant
information and thought declines
 Difficulty paying attention and
organizing info
 Processing speed declines
 Less efficient memory retrieval
(3 main categories of
memory changes in late adulthood, continued)
3) Biological Factors
 Brain and body deterioration
 Accelerated frontal lobe
deterioration
 Continuation of education in late
adulthood can improve cognitive
skills
Improving cognitive skills in late adulthood
through mental stimulation
 Community Centers
 Classes/programs specially designed for adults
 Free tuition at colleges & Universities
~ Although some elderly people avoid these
opportunities because of concerns about their
intellectual capabilities, this is not supported
by research!
~ Other students & professors value diversity
in the classroom: Win/win situation!
~Being around others can help with cognitive functioning!
~Being around others can help with cognitive functioning
Don’t forget to keep up
with your reading!