Outline of Today’s Discussion
1. Introduction to Research Methods
Intro To Research Methods
1. Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
2. The Field’s Topical Coherence:
Behavior, Thoughts, Feelings
3. The Field’s Methodological Coherence:
The Scientific Method
Intro To Research Methods
Wilhelm Wundt
U of Leipzig
1879
William James
“Principles of Psychology”
1890
Hermann von Helmholtz
Physiological Psyc;
Sensation & Perception
BF Skinner
Behaviorism
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Memory
Noam Chomsky
Cognition, Language
Intro To Research Methods
1904 – Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
1973 – Lorenz &
Tinbergen; Ethology
1981 – Sperry,
Split Brain Patients;
Hubel & Wiesel
Visual Perception
2002 – Daniel Kahneman
Decision Making
1961 - Von Bekesy
Auditory Perception
1978 – Simon
Organizational Decisions
2000 – Kandel
Memory
2004 – Buck & Axel
Olfaction
Intro To Research Methods
Thinking Like a Researcher:
Science requires and open but skeptical attitude;
Science demands evidence…
Intro To Research Methods
Say it with me…
Science demands evidence!!!
Intro To Research Methods
1. Why does science demand evidence?
2. Not all forms of human endeavor demand
evidence (Art, Religion). These are other ways
of “knowing”.
Intro To Research Methods
1. Our legal system is like science in that our legal
system demands evidence.
2. In our country (though not in all countries) one is
innocent until proven guilty.
3. The burden of proof is on the prosecutor.
(“The prosecution failed to make its case.”)
Intro To Research Methods
The Duke Rape Case: 2007
Prosecuting District Attorney Mike Nifong
was aware of exculpatory DNA evidence before the indictment.
Dr. Brian Meehan failed to report exculpatory DNA evidence.
Intro To Research Methods
1. In science, the burden of proof is on the researcher.
2. The researcher must provide evidence for his/her
claim. A panel of peer reviewers (“a jury”) remains
skeptical until evidence is provided.
3. If a researcher makes a claim while providing only
questionable evidence, the peer reviewers will say…
Intro To Research Methods
Paaaaleeeeez!
Say it with me!!!
Intro To Research Methods
1. In science, the burden of proof is on the researcher.
2. The researcher must provide evidence for his/her
claim. A panel of peer reviewers (“a jury”) remains
skeptical until evidence is provided.
3. Sometimes there is a “plea bargain”, i.e., a
researcher wanted to make a major claim, but only
had sufficient evidence for a more modest claim.
Intro To Research Methods
1. There are also many differences between science and
the legal system.
2. They are too many to name…but here’s a big
difference…
3. Scientists get to choose what issues they want to
research. (Lawyers often are “stuck” with the cases
that just happen come to them.)
Intro To Research Methods
1. The choice that researchers make about a research
topic are influenced by many factors…
2. Historical influences - For example, in the early to
mid 20th century behaviorism was dominant (what is
behaviorism?)
3. In the1960’s and beyond, cognitive influences became
a large research focus.
4. Today, there is a heightened appreciation for
physiological psychology (MRI, TMS, EEG, etc.).
Intro To Research Methods
1.
Other factors influencing research are the social/cultural
context, and the ethical context.
2.
Example 1 - Some research on stem cells is permitted in
certain countries, but not others.
3.
Example 2 - Research on the human genome project has
raised the notion of genetic profiling (who gets to know what
about your genetic make-up.)
4.
Example 3 - Rules governing animal research vary widely
from country to country.
5.
Example 4 - Deceiving participants can be questionable.
Intro To Research Methods
•
In what ways do the following headlines differ…
•
A man from California is suspected of arson.
•
Chicago Police arrested a CEO for embezzling $$$$.
•
A couple from Newark was arraigned in court on a
charge of parental neglect.
•
A reclusive woman from New York was convicted of
manslaughter in a case involving her dead neighbor.
Intro To Research Methods
•
In what ways do these research findings differ…
•
A survey of US adults indicated that 96% of married people reported that
they were faithful to their spouse last year.
•
Research has shown that whether a teen begins to smoke is more strongly
correlated with peer-smoking than with parental-smoking.
•
Experimental research shows that writing about emotional experiences
associated with being in college (compared with superficial writing) causes
college students to have better health and academic outcomes.
•
Over many replications of the same false-memory experiment, researchers
found that about 3/4ths of the participants generated “false positives”.
Intro To Research Methods
1. Researchers and juries both seek the truth, but their
conclusions are ultimately probabilistic.
2. Certainty is beyond the grasp of both jurors and
scientists.
3. Note: A colleague of mine tells psychology students to
remove the words “prove” and “proof” from their
vocabulary…those words are too strong.
(Also, science is about disconfirmation more than confirmation;
More on that later in the semester.)
Intro To Research Methods
1. Caution is needed when evaluating research findings
that are reported in the popular media…
2. There are two reasons for this:
-Not all research is solid
-Critical details are often “lost in translation”
3. Potential Pop Quiz Question: How does the above
warning relate to the “Mozart Effect”?
Good prep for your psych research courses, and beyond
Intro To Research Methods
•
To begin the research cycle, it’s helpful to have some
tips (McGuire, 1997) on generating hypotheses…
•
Consider deviations (exceptions) from a general trend (Neptune Anecdote).
•
Imagine how you would behave when asked to solve a particular problem.
•
Consider similar problems whose solution is known.
•
Make sustained, deliberate observations of a person/phenomenon (Darwin)
•
Generate counter-examples to an obvious conclusion about behavior.
•
Borrow ideas or theories from other disciplines
(Examples include, behavioral genotype/phenotype, & Fourier Analysis).
Good prep for your psych research courses, and beyond
Intro To Research Methods
•
Sternberg (1997) offers these to consider when
evaluating research questions…
•
Why is this question scientifically important?
•
What is the scope of the question? (Is it so narrow that it’s not important?)
•
What are likely outcomes if I carry out this project?
•
To what extent will psychological science be advanced by knowing the
answer to this question?
•
Why would anyone be interested in the results obtained by asking this
question?
Intro To Research Methods
Exercise on Science & Politics
(Hand-out)
The U.S. Congress’ 1999 Censure
of a Psychological Bulletin Article:
A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties
of child sexual abuse using college samples. (1998).
Rind B., Tromovitch P. & Baursman R.
Acknowledgments
Images used in this educational presentation
were obtained from Wikimedia Commons, in
accordance with regulations regarding
copyright, use, and dissemination.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page