2013 AP US History Vocab List
ABC Powers – Argentina, Brazil, and Chile were collectively known as the ABC Powers. In 1914, their intervention in the Tampico Incident was
instrumental in avoiding war between the United States and Mexico.
Adams-Onis Treaty – The Adams-Onis Treaty between Spain and the United States was created in the 1819 and ratified in 1831. It was critical in
defining the border between the United States and Mexico/ Fearing the loss of Florida without compensation, the Spanish foreign minister agreed to a
border between the Louisiana Purchase and Spanish lands. Spain kept Texas, California, and New Mexico.
Adams-Onis Treaty – Signed by Secretary of States John Quincy Adams and Spanish Minister Luis de Onis in 1819, this treaty allowed for U.S.
annexation of Florida.
Abigail Adams – The future of the First Lady and wife of John Adams, had a profound impact on her husband, documented through the numerous
letters that they exchanged. She also had the rights of women in mind when she suggested that her husband remember the plight of women during the
formation of a new nation.
John Adams – A leading revolutionary war figure, John Adams was a delegate to the Continental Congress. He nominated Washington to head the
Continental Army. He was a minister to England and the first vice president. Though criticized for the Alien and Sedition Acts, one of his
accomplishments was appointing John Marshall as Supreme Court chief justice.
Jane Addams – Jane Addams was one of the leading reformers who attacked the problems of slum living at the beginning of the twentieth century.
She and Ellen Starr created Hull House in Chicago as a place where children could go to kindergarten or a nursery while their mothers worked. They
provided recreation and programs to residents offering opportunities they might now have had before.
Affirmative Action – refers to a set of policies and initiatives designed to overcome past and to help eliminate resent discrimination based on race,
color, religion, sex, or national origin. When racial quotas were created, there were charges of “reverse discrimination” with cases such as Bakke v.
Board of Regents of California.
African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church – Richard Allen founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1816 as the first independent
black-run Protestant church in the United States. The AME Church was active in the promotion of abolition and the founding of educational
institutions for free blacks.
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) – Created by Congress in 1933 as part of the New Deal, this agency attempted to restrict
agricultural production by paying farmers subsidies to take land out of production. The object was to raise farm prices, and it did, but the act did
nothing for tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1936.
Agricultural Revolution – The gradual shift from hunting and gathering to cultivating basic food crops that occurred about 7000 to 9000 years ago.
This transition resulted in sedentary living, population growth, and establishment of permanent villages.
AIDS – Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome, a disease of the immune system transmitted through the blood, especially by sexual contact or
contaminated needles. AIDS reached epidemic proportions in the United States in the 1980’s before it was gradually contained in the 1990’s.
Alamo – In 1835, Americans living in the Mexican state of Texas fomented a revolution. Mexico lost the conflict, but not before its troops defeated
and killed a group of American rebels at the Alamo, a fort in San Antonio.
Albany Plan – Benjamin Franklin submitted the Plan at the 1754 gathering of the colonial delegates in Albany, New York. The plan called for the
colonies to unify in the face of the French and Native American threats. The delegates approved the plan, but the colonies rejected it for fear of losing
too much power. The Crown did not support the plan either, as it was wary of too much cooperation between the colonies.
Albany Plan – Plan of intercolonial cooperation proposed by prominent colonists including Benjamin Franklin at a conference in Albany, New
York, in 1754. The plan envisioned the formation of a Grand Council of elected delegates from the colonies that would have the powers to tax and
provide for the common defense. It was rejected by the colonial and British Governments, but was a prototype for colonial union.
Alien and Sedition Acts - The Alien and Sedition Acts were reportedly designed to create stability at home during the time of foreign crisis with
France. The acts allowed the president to deport "dangerous" aliens and crack down on speech deemed "false, scandalous, and malicious." However,
the acts were actually a transparent attack on Republicans, for which President Adams received a great deal of criticism.
Alien and Sedition Acts – Collective name given to four laws passed in 1798 designed to suppress criticism of the federal government and to curb
liberties of foreigners living in the United States.
American Colonization Society – Founded in 1817, this abolitionist organization hoped to provide a mechanism by which slavery could gradually
be eliminated. The society advocated the relocation of free blacks (followed by freed slaves) to the African colony of Monrovia, present day Liberia.
American Federation of Labor (AFL) – Founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) sought to organize craft
unions into a federation in which the individual unions maintained some autonomy. A larger union would naturally have more power in negotiating
with management. The structure of the AFL differed from that of the Knights of Labor, which aimed to absorb individual unions.
American Federation of Labor (AFL) – Founded by Samuel Gompers in 1886, the AFL was a loose alliance of national craft unions that organized
skilled workers by craft and worked for specific practical objectives such as higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions. The AFL
avoided politics, and while it did not expressly forbid black and women workers from joining, it used exclusionary practices to keep them out.
American Federation of Labor (AFL) – Congress of Industrial Organization (CIO) – The American Federation of Labor was created in 1886 to
organize unions into a federation. Samuel Gompers was the founding leader of the organization. The Congress of Industrial Organizations emerged
from within the AFL in 1938. It was very influential, operating during an era of government and business cooperation. In 1955, it merged with AFL
to become the AFL-CIO.
American System – A national economic strategy championed by Kentucky Senator Henry Clay, the American system stressed high tariffs and
internal improvements.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) – Passed by Congress in 1991, this act banned discrimination against the disabled in employment and
mandated east access to all public and commercial buildings.
Anaconda Policy – A key point in the Union’s war strategy was encircling the South as an anaconda squeezes its prey. This plan entailed a naval
blockade and the capture of the Mississippi River corridor.
Annexation of Texas – Texas won its independence from Mexico and immediately consulted the United States about annexation. However, the
Senate would not agree to annexation due to sectional fears; President Tyler was urging the annexation of Texas as a slave state to solidify his base in
the South as the election of 1844 loomed. Instead, Texas was annexed by a joint resolution of Congress in 1845 after James K. Polk was elected
President.
Antifederalists – Critics of the Constitution who expressed concern that it seemed to possess no specific provision for the protection of natural civil
rights. The antifederalists forced Congress to accept a number of amendments known as the Bill of Rights.
Anti-imperialist League – This organization was formed in November 1898 to fight against the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War.
Members opposed to the acquisition of overseas colonies by the United States, believing it would subvert American ideals and institutions.
Membership centered in new England; the cause was less popular in the South and West.
Antinomianism – Religious belief rejecting traditional moral law as unnecessary for Christians who possessed saving grace and affirming that an
individual could experience divine revelation and salvation without the assistance of formally trained clergy.
Articles of Confederation – Ratified in 1781, this document was the United States first constitution, providing a framework for national
government. The articles sharply limited central authority by denying the national government any taxation or coercive power.
Ashcan School – This school of early twentieth-century realist painters took as their subjects the slums and streets of the nation’s cities and the lives
of ordinary urban dwellers. They often celebrated life in the city but also advocated political and social reform.
Axis Powers – During World War II, the alliance between Italy, Germany, and Japan was known as the “Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis, “ and the three
members were called the Axis Powers. They fought against the Allied Powers led by the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union.
Baby Boom – The term "baby boom" refers to a period when the United States population swelled from 150 million to 180 million. The main period
of such population growth occurred between 1946 (the end of WWII) and the mid-1960s.
Baby Boom – Post-World War II, Americans idealized the family. The booming birth rate after the war led children born to this generation to be
commonly referred to as “baby boomers”.
Backcountry – In the eighteenth century, the edge of settlement extending from western Pennsylvania to Georgia. This region formed the second
frontier as settlers moved westward from the Atlantic coast into the nation’s frontier.
Bacon's Rebellion – Nathaniel Bacon organized a group of farmers to deal with invading Indians because the Governor of Virginia refused to do
anything. Bacon and his soldiers, mainly slaves and poor whites, burned Jamestown and forced Governor Berkeley to flee, but the Governor soon
regained control of the colony. Bacon's lasting effect was to solidify the local gentry against future corrupt royal appointees.
Bacon’s Rebellion – An armed rebellion in Virginia (1675-1676) led by Nathaniel Bacon against the colony’s royal governor Sir William Berkeley.
Although some of his followers called for an end of special privilege in government, bacon was chiefly interested in gaining a larger share of the
lucrative Indian trade.
Bank of the United States – National bank proposed by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and established in 1791. It served as a central
depository for the U.S. government and had the authority to issue currency.
Bank War – Between 1832-1836, Andrew Jackson used his presidential power to fight and ultimately destroy the second Bank of the United States.
Barbary Pirates – The Barbary pirates, from the states located on the northern coast of Africa, attacked foreign shipping in the region. They often
stole the cargo and held the sailors for ransom. In 1801, their tribute demands became unreasonable and the United States sent warships commanded
by Stephen Decatur to put an end to the problem. Decatur set up a blockade around the islands in 1805, forcing a peace settlement.
Barbary War – In response to constant attacks on trading vessels by pirates from the North African Barbary States, in 1801 President Thomas
Jefferson sent a naval squadron to resolve the problem through military force. After failing to achieve most of its military objectives, the
administration signed an 1805 treaty ending the war.
Baruch Plan – In 1946, Bernard Baruch presented an American plan to control and eventually outlaw nuclear weapons. The plan called for United
Nations control of nuclear weapons in three stages before the United States gave up its stockpile. Soviet insistence on immediate nuclear
disarmament without inspection doomed the Baruch Plan and led to a nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Battle of the Little Bighorn – General George A. Custer, a Civil War veteran, was charged with the responsibility of controlling the Sioux tribe. He
ignored the advice of his Crow scouts and led a meager force of approximately 200 soldiers into a trap at the Little Bighorn River. His force was
overrun and destroyed to the last man by the Sioux. This was one of the last significant victories of the Native Americans in the West.
Battle of Wounded Knee – As the military became more and more nervous over the occurrence of the ceremonial "Ghost Dance" that the Sioux
were preforming at each new moon, hostilities ensued. The Battle of Wounded Knee occurred when a group of Sioux Indians was surrendering to a
group of soldiers. An accidental rifle shot caused a massacre where close to 200 Indians and 25 soldiers were killed.
Bay of Pigs – In April 1961, a group of Cuban exiles organized and supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) landed on the southern
coast of Cuba in an effort to overthrow Fidel Castro. When the invasion ended in disaster, President Kennedy took full responsibility for the failure.
Beats – In the late 1950’s, young poets and novelists such as Jack Kerouac became known as the beats, or the “beatniks” for their innovative writing
and bizarre behavior. Calling themselves members of “the beat generation,” they challenged the prevailing materialism of the consumer culture.
Berlin Airlift – Following World War II in 1948, West Berlin was cut off from supplies because Russia did not allow transportation between West
Germany and West Berlin. The United States and Great Britain sent food, fuel, and other necessities by plane (called the Berlin Airlift) to help the
West Berlin allies. This action stopped West Berlin from falling under Communist control.
Berlin Airlift – In 1948, in response to a Soviet land blockade of Berlin, the United States carried out a massive effort to supply the two million
Berlin citizens with food, fuel, and other goods by air for more than six months. The airlift forced the Soviets to end the blockade in 1949.
Berlin Wall – In 1961, the Soviet Union built a high barrier to seal off their sector of Berlin in order to stop the flow of refugees out of the Soviet
zone of Germany. The wall was torn down in 1989.
Big Stick Diplomacy – Big Stick Diplomacy refers to the foreign relations and diplomatic policies of President Theodore Roosevelt. He summed up
his aggressive stance toward international affairs with the phrase, "Speak softly and carry a big stick."
Bill of Rights – The first ten amendments to the U.S. constitution, adopted in 1791 to preserve the right and liberties of individuals.
Birds of Passage – Temporary migrants who came to the United States to work and save money then returned home to their native countries during
the slack season. World War I interrupted the practice trapping thousands of migrant workers in the United States.
Black Codes – Laws passed by southern states immediately after the Civil War in an effort to maintain the pre-war social order. The codes attempted
to tie field men to field work and prevent them from becoming equal to white southerners.
Black Power – Black Power was the term for the more militant faction of civil rights groups that sprang up in the late 1960s. These groups stressed
forceful resistance to White oppression and advocated separation from White society rather than integration. Malcolm X was one of the leading
advocates of Black Power.
Bleeding Kansas – In 1854, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act that allowed the newly created territories to decide whether they would enter
the Union as free or slave states. This in effect repealed the Missouri Compromise, which had prohibited slavery in the Kansas territory. Competition
for control between those for and against slavery resulted in open warfare leading to the territory being called "Bleeding Kansas."
Bland-Allison Silver Purchase Act – This act, a compromise between groups favoring the coinage of silver and those opposed to it, called for the
partial coinage of silver. Those favoring silver coinage argued that it would add to the currency and help farmers and workers; those who opposed it
pointed out that few other countries accepted silver coinage. President Rutherford B Hayes vetoed the Bland-Allison bill in 1878, but Congress
overrode his veto.
Bonanza Farms – Huge farms covering thousands of acres on the Great Planes. In relying on large size and new machinery, they represented a
development in agriculture similar to that taking place in industry.
Bonus Army – In 1924, Congress voted that World War I veterans would receive a cash bonus in the form of life insurance that would become
payable in 1945. However, many unemployed veterans gathered in Washington D.C. in 1932 to demand immediate payment. Some of this Bonus
Army lived in makeshift camps. In July 1933, the shantytown was raided and destroyed troops led by General McArthur.
Bonus Army – In June 1932, a group of twenty-thousand World War I veterans marched on Washington, D.C., to demand immediate payment of
their “adjusted compensation” bonuses vetoed by Congress in 1924. Congress rejected their demands, and President Hoover, fearing that their ranks
were infested with criminals and radicals, had the bonus army forcibly removed from their encampment. It was a public relations disaster for Hoover.
Booker T. Washington – Booker T. Washington was a black leader and the first principal of the Tuskegee Institute (1881). Washington adopted a
moderate approach in addressing racism and segregation, urging Black people to learn vocational skills and strive for gradual improvements in their
social, political, and economic status. He was strongly opposed by W. E.B. DuBois
Border States – There were four slave states that stayed in the Union because of the assurances that the war was being fought to preserve the Union
rather than end slavery. These four border states were Missouri, Delaware, Kentucky, and Maryland. Maryland was a key state for the North to keep
in the Union. If it had joined the Confederacy, the capital, Washington D.C., would have been surrounded by the Confederacy.
Boston Massacre – A violent confrontation between British troops and a Boston mob on March 5, 1770. Five citizens were killed when the troops
fired into the crowd. The incident inflamed anti-British sentiment in Massachusetts.
Boston Tea Party – The Boston Tea Party was a defiant response to the Tea Act, which allowed the British East India Company to import tea
directly to the colonies, by passing heavy taxes in Great Britain. This act damaged American tea merchants and created the possibility that Parliament
could pass similar laws involving other products. On December 16, 1773, Bostonians dressed as Indians dumped chests of tea into Boston harbor.
Brandeis Brief – Filed by attorney Louis S. Brandeis in the Supreme Court case of Muller v. Oregon, his brief presented only two pages if legal
precedents, but contained 115 pages of sociological evidence on the negative effects of long workdays on women’s health and thus on women as
mothers. The brief expanded the definition of legal evidence.
Brinksmanship – The tern Brinksmanship was coined by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles to describe the policy of the United States towards
the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Dulles believed that the United States had to be willing to go to "the brink" of war to avoid it. A cornerstone
of this line policy was the threat of atomic weapons.
Brook Farm – This transcendent commune, founded in Massachusetts in 1841, attracted many leading creative figures during its brief existence.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka – In 1954, the Supreme Court reversed the Plessey v. Ferguson decision (1896) that established the
“separate but equal” doctrine. The Brown decision found segregation in school inherently unequal and initiated a long a difficult effort to integrate
the nation’s schools.
Buffalo Soldiers – Buffalo Soldiers were two "colored" cavalry units that were sent west to patrol and build forts after the Civil War. Comprised
mainly of Civil War veterans, the received this nickname from the Indians. They were responsible for mapping large parts of the Southwest, putting
up telegraph lines, capturing outlaws, and fighting hostile Indians.
Bull Moose Party – Theodore Roosevelt broke with the Republicans after losing the nomination for president to Taft. His Bull Moose Party took its
name from Roosevelt's statement that he felt "as strong as a bull moose." The party was progressive in nature, and favored conservationism,
regulation of big business, women's suffrage and worker's rights.
Camp David Accords – A major accomplishment of the Carter presidency, the Camp David Accords were signed by Israel's leader, Menachem
Begin, and Egypt's leader, Anwar el-Sadat, on September 17,1978, creating a framework for peace in the Middle East. The treaty, however, fell apart
when Sadat was assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists in 1981.
Camp David Accords – In 1978, President Carter mediated a peace agreement between the leaders of Egypt and Israel at Camp David, a presidential
retreat near Washington, D.C. The next year, Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty based on the Camp David Accords.
Carpetbaggers – Carpetbaggers were Republicans in the North who moved to the South at the end of the Civil War and took control of the party
leadership despite their small numbers. They gained the derogatory name carpetbaggers because some carried their possessions in bags made of
carpet.
Carpetbaggers – This term was applied to Northerners who moved to the South after the Civil War in order to aid the reconstruction of the south or
to invest in the southern economy. It derives from the claim that northerners carried everything they owned in one bag.
Cesar Chavez – Cesar Chavez, a migrant farm worker,
created the united farm workers organizing committee in 1963 to help exploited Chicano workers. After leading union strikes against California
grape growers, he won better pay for the workers.
Checks and Balances – To keep any one branch of the government from becoming too powerful, the framers of the US Constitution set up a system
of checks and balances. For example, the legislative branch can check the president through the ability to impeach and remove the president. The
executive branch can veto bills that have passed Congress. The judicial branch can use its powers of judicial review to check the other two branches.
Chief Joseph – Chief Joseph was the head of the Nez Perce Indians. Despite their peaceful nature, Chief Joseph led a rebellion against the United
States to avoid reservation life. He is famous for his 1,500-mile retreat that nearly brought his people to Canada. Ultimately he was captured and sent
to Oklahoma.
Chinese Exclusionary Act – Legislation passed in 1882 that excluded Chinese immigrant workers for ten years and denied U.S. citizenship to
Chinese nationals living in the United States. It was the first U.S. exclusionary law that was aimed at a specific racial group.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – The Civilian Conservation Corps, created in 1933 as part of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, pumped
money into the economy by employing the destitute in conversation and other projects. The program employed many young men for projects such as
improving national parks and reforestation.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – One of the most popular New Deal programs, the CCC was created by Congress to provide young men
between the ages of 18 and 25 with government jobs in reforestation and other conservation projects. It eventually employed over 300,000 people.
Civil Rights Act of 1875 - A federal law that forbade discrimination on public conveyances (transportation) and guaranteed African Americans “full
and equal enjoyment” of such conveyances. It represented one of the last efforts on the part of the federal government to enforce civil rights.
Civil Rights Act of 1957 – The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was the first civil rights law since Reconstruction. It created the Civil Rights Commission
and a special division within the Justice Department that could fight against those preventing people from voting. However, it was not particularly
effective. Nonetheless, it paved the way for future laws, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Civil Rights Cases – A group of cases in 1883 in which the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment barred state government from
discriminating on the basis of race, but sis not prevent individuals or organizations form doing so. The ruling dealt a massive blow to the Republican
Party’s earlier efforts to provide protection for African Americans.
Civil War Amendments - The Civil War Amendments were passed as a result of the outcome of the civil war. The Thirteenth Amendment outlawed
slavery. The Fifteenth Amendment gave all male citizens over 21 the right to vote. The Fourteenth Amendment is usually considered the most
significant: states could not abridge the rights of citizens, were to follow "due process of law," and could not deny anyone "equal protection of the
laws."
Henry Clay – Henry Clay had a vast impact on the politics of the Era of Good Feelings and the Age of Jackson. He engineered the American
System, a program aimed at economic self-sufficiency. As speaker of the house during Monroe's term in office, he was instrumental in crafting much
of the legislation that passed through Congress. He led the Whig Party until his death in 1852.
Clayton Antitrust Act – An attempt to improve the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890, this law outlawed interlocking directorates (companies in
which the same people served as directors), forbade policies that created monopolies, and made corporate officers responsible for antitrust violations.
Benefiting labor, it declared that unions were not conspiracies in restraint of trade and outlawed the use of injunctions in labor disputes unless they
were necessary to protect property.
Coercive Acts – Also known as the Intolerable Acts, the four pieces of legislation passed by Parliament in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party
were meant to punish the colonies.
Cold War – At the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union faced off as enemies in a Cold War. This lasted from 1946 to 1991.
While there was no actual direct conflict between the nations, they were political, technological, and military enemies and rivals. During this period,
the threat of Communism loomed and affected all foreign policy.
Columbian Exchange – The exchange of plants, animals, culture, and diseases between Europe and the Americans from first contact throughout the
era of exploration.
Committee of Correspondence – Vast communication network formed in Massachusetts and other colonies to communicate grievances and provide
colonists with evidence of British oppression.
Committee on Public Information (CPI) – Created in 1917 by President Wilson and headed by progressive journalist George Creed, this
organization rallied support for American involvement in World War I through art, advertising, and film. Creel worked out a system of voluntary
censorship with the press and distributed colorful posters and pamphlets. The CPI’s Division of Industrial Relations rallied labor to help the war
effort.
Common Sense – Revolutionary tract written by Thomas Paine in January 1776. It called for independence and the establishment of a republican
government in America.
Compromise of 1850 - Henry Clay sponsored five proposals that became known as the Compromise of 1850. California was to be admitted as a free
state, Utah and New Mexico were to decide the legality of slavery within their territories, the slave trade was to be prohibited in the District of
Columbia, Texas was to give up its claim to New Mexico for $10 million, and the Fugitive Slave Law was to be passed.
Compromise of 1850 – This series of five congressional statutes temporarily calmed the sectional crisis. Among other things, the compromise made
California a free state, ended the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and strengthened the Fugitive Slave Law.
Compromise of 1877 – Compromise struck during the contested Presidential election of 1876, in which Democrats accepted the election of
Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the south and the ending of reconstruction.
Comstock Lode – Discovered in 1859 near Virginia City, Nevada, this one deposit was the richest discovery in the history of mining. Named after T.
P. Comstock, a drifter who talked his way into a partnership in the claim, between 1859 and 1879 the deposit produced gold and silver worth more
than$306 million.
Confederate States of America – In February, 1861, delegates from the states that had seceded (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi,
South Carolina, and Texas) met and formed the Confederate States of America, or CSA. State sovereignty and independence were stressed. Slavery
was legalized and the government was forbidden to pass protective tariffs. Jefferson Davis was named the President of the CSA.
Conquistadores – Sixteenth-century Spanish adventurers, often of noble birth, who subdued the Native Americans and created the Spanish empire in
the New World.
Conservation – As President, Theodore Roosevelt made this principle one of his administration’s top goals. Conservation in his view aimed at
protecting the nation’s natural resources, but it called for wise use of them rather than locking them away. Roosevelt’s policies were opposed by
those who favored preservation of the wilderness over its development.
Constitutional Convention - The Constitutional Convention was a secret meeting in Philadelphia of 55 delegates whose goal was to revise the
weak Articles of Confederation. The resulting constitution was a "bundle of compromises," including the 3/5 Compromise, the Interstate Commerce
Compromise, and the Great (or Connecticut) Compromise.
Containment – First proposed by George Kennan in 1947, containment became the basic strategy of the United States throughout the Cold War.
Kennan argued that firm American resistance to Soviet expansion would eventually compel Moscow to adopt more peaceful policies.
Continental Congress – The Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from all colonies, except Georgia, that gathered in Philadelphia is
September 1774. It was called in response to numerous policies and actions imposed by Great Britain. The result was the assertion that colonists
deserved the rights of Englishmen. The delegates denounced the Intolerable Acts and agreed to meet again if their issues were not resolved.
Contract with America – in the 1994 congressional elections, Congressman Newt Gingrich had Republican candidates sin a document in which the
pledged their support for such things as a balanced budget amendment, term limits for members of Congress, and a middle-class tax cut.
Cooperationists – In late 1860, southern secessionists debated two strategies: unilateral succession by each state or “cooperative” succession buy the
south as a whole. The cooperationists lost the debate.
Copperheads – Northern Democrats suspected of being indifferent or hostile to the Union cause in the Civil War.
Corrupt Bargain – The top two contenders in the election of 1824 were Andrew Jackson and John Q. Adams. Neither contender had enough
electoral votes to win. The election went to the House controlled by Speaker Henry Clay. He supported Adams, giving him the victory. Clay then
became Secretary of State in the new Adams administration. This created the image of impropriety, thus a "corrupt bargain."
Cotton Gin – Invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, this device for separating the seeds from the fibers of short-staple cotton enabled a slave to clean
fifty time more cotton as by hand, which reduced production costs and gave new life to slavery in the south.
Court-Packing Plan – In 1937, President Roosevelt unsuccessfully tried to pass a court reform bill (the Court-Packing Plan) would allow the
president to appoint a maximum of 6 additional Supreme Court justices for each current justice over the age of 70. He claimed the measure was
offered in concern for the workload of older justices; it was seen as a dilution of the power of the conservative justices.
“Court-Packing Scheme” – Concerned that the conservative Supreme Court might declare all his New Deal programs unconstitutional, President
Franklin D. Roosevelt asked Congress to allow him to appoint additional justices to the Court. Both Congress and the public rejected the “courtpacking” scheme and it was defeated.
Credit Mobilier scandal – The “Credit Mobilier” was a construction company that bilked the Union Pacific Railroad out of money. The Credit
Mobilier shareholders profited richly to the detriment of the railroad. This caused a scandal in 1872; high-ranking Republicans had been given stock
in Credit Mobilier in exchange for votes. In the end, thirteen members of Congress were found to be involved and two were censured.
Crittenden Compromise – Faced with the specter of succession and war, Congress tried and failed to resolve the sectional crisis in the months
between Lincoln election and inauguration. The leading proposal, introduced by Kentucky Senator John Crittenden, would have extended the
Missouri Compromise line west to the Pacific.
Cuban Missile Crisis – In October 1962, the United States and the Soviet Union came close to nuclear war when President Kennedy insisted that
Nikita Khrushchev remove the 42 missiles he had secretly deployed in Cuba. The Soviets eventually did so, nuclear war was averted, and the crisis
ended.
Cult of Domesticity – Term used by historians to characterize the dominant gender role for white women in the antebellum period. The ideology of
domesticity stressed the virtue of women as guardians of the home, which was considered their proper sphere.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward – In this 1819 case, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution protected charters given to corporations by
states.
Dawes Act (1887) – The Dawes Act gave any Indian who was willing to leave a reservation and take up farming, citizenship and 160 acres of land. It
was not until 1924 that all Indians were granted citizenship.
Dawes Severalty Act – Legislation passed by Congress in 1887 that aimed at breaking up traditional Indian life by promoting individual land
ownership. It divided tribal lands into small plots that were distributed among members of each tribe. Provisions were made for Indian education and
eventual citizenship. The law led to corruption, exploitation, and the weakening of Native American tribal culture.
D-Day – D-Day (June 6, 1944) was the day the Allied troops crossed the English Channel and opened a second front in Western Europe during
World War II. The “D” stands for “disembarkation”: to leave a ship and go ashore.
Eugene V. Debs – Eugene V. Debs, a prominent socialist leader and five-time presidential candidate, formed the American Railway Union in 1893,
led the Pullman Strike in 1894, and helped found the Industrial Workers of the World. Imprisoned in 1918 under the Espionage Act for denouncing
U.S. involvement in World War I, Debs was pardoned in 1921. While in prison, he ran for the presidency and received over 900,000 votes.
Declaration of Independence – The Declaration of Independence was meticulously crafted by Thomas Jefferson to convey the reasons why the
United States of America should be formed. It lay out the natural rights of men and then lists the grievances that the colonists had against King
George III and Parliament. The document was adopted on July 4, 1776.
Declaratory Act – When Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766, it also passed the Declaratory Act that asserted that Parliament could make
laws over the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." This maneuver only worked to reduce tension for a short time.
Democratic-Republican Party – Divisions over Alexander Hamilton's programs resulted in two political parties. Supporters created the Federalist
Party. Opponents started the Democratic-Republican Party which led to the Democratic Party. Their main supporters were small farmers, laborers,
and settlers especially from the South and the West. The Democratic-Republicans gained the presidency with the election of Jefferson in 1800.
Desegregation – After Brown v. Board of Education, schools were ordered to integrate. This was not received with open arms in the South and, in
fact, some Southern states flatly refused. It took court orders, federal legislation, threats of federal force, demonstrations, busing, and threats of
withdrawals of federal money for the process to make considerable gains.
John Dewey – John Dewey, one of the chief proponents the philosophy of pragmatism, used philosophical ideas to help reform society, and is
especially known for his educational reforms. He was the founder of "progressive education" –the idea that students should be taught history, science,
and geography to increase their experiences, if only vicariously. His ultimate goal was social equality.
Dien Bien Phu – In 1954, Vietminh rebels besieged a French garrison at Dien Bien Phu, deep in the interior of northern Vietnam. In May, after the
United States refused to intervene, Dien Bien Phu fell to the communists.
Dorothea Dix – Dorothea Dix observed ill treatment of the mentally handicapped and called for reform in 1843. Many acted on her advice and
adopted programs to improve the lives of mentally handicapped patients. Later, Dix would be a volunteer nurse during the Civil War and become the
first Superintendent of Women Nurses for the Union.
Dixiecrats – In 1948, a group of southern Democrats known as the Dixiecrats bolted from their party and supported Governor Strom Thurmond of
South Carolina as the presidential candidate of the States Rights party.
Deregulation – Ronald Reagan continued the deregulation process begun by Jimmy Carter, cutting back on the scope of federal agencies and relying
instead on the free market to keep prices of consumer goods low and the quality high.
Desert Storm – Desert Strom was the code name used by the United States and its coalition partners in waging war against Iraq in 1991 to liberate
Kuwait.
Détente – President Nixon and Henry Kissinger pursued a policy of détente, a French word meaning a relaxation of tension, with the Soviet Union as
a way to lessen the possibility of nuclear war in the 1970’s.
Dollar Diplomacy – President William Howard Taft's foreign policy was called Dollar Diplomacy. Taft sought to address international problems by
extending American investment overseas, believing that such activity would both benefit the U.S. economy and promote stability abroad.
“Dollar Diplomacy” – This policy, adopted by President William Howard Taft and Secretary of State Philander C. Knox, sought to promote U.S.
financial and business interests abroad. It aimed to replace military alliances with economic ties, with the idea of increasing American influence and
securing lasting peace. Under this policy, Taft worked in Latin America to replace European loans with American ones, assumed the debt of some
countries such as Honduras to fend off foreign bond holders, and helped Nicaragua secure a large loan in exchange for U.S. control of its national
bank.
Frederick Douglass – Frederick Douglass was an important Black abolitionist who escaped to freedom. He wrote the Narrative of the Life of
Frederick Douglass in 1845. Fearing that he would be captured and returned to slavery, he fled to Great Britain. When he returned to the U.S. in
1847, he began the North Star, an antislavery newspaper. His book was one of the most famous slavery accounts of the time.
Dry Farming – A farming technique developed to allow farming in the more arid parts of the west, where settlers had to deal with far less rainfall
that they had in Mississippi. Furrows were plowed a foot or so deep and filled with a dust mulch to loosen soil and slow evaporation.
Dynamic Conservatism – President Eisenhower called his philosophy of government "dynamic conservatism" to distinguish it from the Republican
administrations of the past, which he deemed backward-looking and complacent. He was determined to work with the Democratic Party, rather than
against it, and at times he opposed proposals made by more conservative members of his own party.
Election of 1860 – Before the election of 1860, the Democratic Party split in two. The Northern half selected Stephen Douglas and the Southerners
nominated John Breckenridge. The Republicans selected Lincoln. John Bell ran for the Constitutional Union party. The key issues were slavery,
internal improvements, and trade regulations. Abraham Lincoln won with a sectional victory. His election would lead to secession by many states.
Emancipation Proclamation - On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln proclaimed that the slaves of the Confederacy were free. Since the South had
not yet been defeated, the proclamation did not immediately free anyone, but it made emancipation an explicit war aim of the North.
Embargo Act - In response to a British attack on an American warship off the coast of Virginia, this 1807 law prohibited foreign commerce.
Encomidenda - An exploitative labor system designed by Spanish rulers to reward conquistadores in the New World by granting them local villages
and control over native labor.
Enlightenment – The Enlightenment was a period when human beings began looking to “reason” to explain the world around them and to help
improve society. It began in Europe and moved to America through the writings of people like John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Enlightenment – Philosophical and intellectual movement that began in Europe during the eighteenth century. It stressed the application of reason to
solve social and scientific problems.
Enumerated Goods – Certain essential raw materials produced in the North American colonies, such as tobacco, sugar, and rice specified in the
Navigation Acts, which stipulated that these goods could be shipped only to England or its colonies
Environmental Protection Agency – Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 as part of a broader effort to protect the
environment and curb the pollution of the nation’s air and water.
Equal Rights Amendment – Supported by the National Organization for Women, the Equal Rights Amendment, first proposed in 1923, would
prevent all gender-based discrimination practices. In the 1970s, the House and Senate passed the amendment and sent it to the states for ratification.
The amendment failed to be approved by three-fourths of the states and so was never added.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) – In 1972, Congress approved the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution, a measure designed to
guarantee women equal treatment under the law. Despite a three-year extension in the time allowed for ratification, ERA supporters fell three states
short of winning adoption.
Era of Good Feelings – The Era of Good Feelings refers to the presidency of James Monroe. It was a period of political harmony. The Federalist
Party was a mere shadow of its former self and Madison overwhelmingly won reelection. However, the latter part of his time in office saw rise of
sectional differences.
“era of good feeling”- a descriptive term for the era of President James Monroe, who served two terms from 1817-1823. During Monroe’s
administration, partisan conflict abated and bold federal initiatives suggested increased nationalism.
Espionage Act – This law, passed after the United States entered World War I, imposed sentences of up to twenty years on anyone found guilty of
aiding the enemy, obstructing recruitment of soldiers, or encouraging disloyalty. It allowed the postmaster general to remove from the mail any
materials that incited treason or insurrection.
Exodusters- A group of about six thousand African Americans who left their homes in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas in 1879, seeking freer lives
in Kansas, where they worked as farmers or laborers.
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Fair Deal – A series of reform measures proposed by President Truman in 1949, including federal aid to education, civil rights measures, and
national medical insurance. A Bipartisan conservative collation in Congress blocked this effort to move beyond the New Deal reforms of 1930s.
Farewell Address – In this 1796 speech, President George Washington announced his intention not to seek a third term in office. He also stressed
federalist interests and warned the American people to avoid political factions and foreign entanglements that could sacrifice U.S. security.
Farmer’s Alliance – During the 1880s, the Farmers’ Alliance took the place of the Grange as a support group for the nation’s farmers. The alliances
were politically active in the Midwest and South, and were central to the founding of the Populist Party.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) – The Federal Communications Commission began in 1934 and is responsible for the regulation of
communications in the United States. It began as the regulatory body of radio but as mass communication expanded so did its authority.
Federal Reserve Act- One of the most important laws in the history of the country, this act created a central banking system, consisting of twelve
regional banks governed by the Federal Reserve Board. It was an attempt to provide the United States with a sound yet flexible currency. The Board
it created still plays a vital role in the American economy today.
The Federalist- A series of essays penned by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay that explained and defended the stronger national
government created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
Federalist Party – Supporters of Alexander Hamilton’s programs created the Federalist Party. The Federalists’ chief supporters were merchants,
bankers, and manufacturers, especially in New England. The presidencies of Washington and Adams are known as the Federalist period because the
party had control of the government. With Jefferson’s election in 1800, the Federalist Party failed to regain power.
Federalists – Supporters of the Constitution who advocated its ratification.
Federalism – With the creation of the Constitution, the framers attempted to preserve the power of the states while creating a more powerful central
government that could perform the necessary duties of a sovereign nation. States gave up some powers to the national government and retained other
powers for themselves. Over time, the national government has gained power in relation to the states.
Federal Reserve Act – In 1913, Woodrow Wilson pushed through one of his most notable legislative successes, the Federal Reserve Act. This
Reorganized the American banking system by creating a network of twelve Federal Reserve banks authorized to distribute currency.
Fifteenth Amendment – Ratified in 1870, this amendment prohibited the denial or abridgment of the right to vote by the federal government or state
governments on the basis of race, color, or prior condition as a slave. It was intended to guarantee African Americans the right to vote in the South.
First Continental Congress - A meeting of delegates from twelve colonies in Philadelphia in 1774, the Congress denied Parliament’s authority to
legislate for the colonies, condemned British actions toward the colonies, created the Continental Association, and endorsed a call to take up arms.
Flexible Response- The Kennedy administration rejected the Eisenhower strategy of massive retaliation in favor of flexible response, which
emphasized the use of conventional as well as nuclear weapons in meeting threats to American security.
Food Administration- A wartime government agency that encouraged Americans to save food in order to supply the armies overseas. It fixed prices
to boost production, asked people to observe “meatless” and “wheatless” days to conserve food, and promoted the planting of “victory gardens”
behind homes, schools, and churches.
Foraker Act- This act established Puerto Rico as an unorganized U.S. territory. Puerto Ricans were not given U.S. citizenship, but the U. S.
president appointed the island’s governor and governing council.
Force acts - Congress attacked the Ku Klux Klan with three Enforcement or “Force” acts in 1870-1871. Designed to protect black voters in the
South, these laws placed state elections under federal jurisdiction and imposed fines and imprisonment on these guilty of interfering with any citizen
exercising his right to vote.
Fourteen Points - In January 1918, President Wilson presented these terms for a far-reaching, nonpunitive settlement of World War I. He called,
among other things, for removal of barriers to trade, open peace accords, reduction of armaments, and the establishment of a League of Nations.
While generous and optimistic, the Points did not satisfy wartime hunger for revenge, and thus were largely rejected by European nations.
Fourteenth Amendment- Ratified in 1868, this amendment provided citizenship to ex-slaves after the Civil War and constitutionally protected equal
rights under the law for all citizens. Its provisions were used by Radical Republicans to enact a congressionally controlled Reconstruction policy of
the former Confederate states.
Freedmen’s Bureau – at the end of the Civil War, the federal government set up the Freedmen’s Bureau to help the newly freed slaves. Activities
included helping freedmen find jobs and assisting in their education. In 1866, despite Andrew Johnson’s veto, the bureau was extended. It was
considered a temporary measure and in fact survived only until 1872. White Southerners despised it.
Freedmen’s Bureau – Agency established by Congress in March 1865 to provide freedmen with shelter, food, and medical aid and to help them
establish schools and find employment. The Bureau was dissolved in 1872.
Freedom of Information Act – The Freedom of Information Act was passed in 1966 and later strengthened after Watergate. It required government
agencies to provide proof of why items were classified as secret and to provide information not labeled secret for public use. After 1975, FBI files
that had been exempt became available to the public.
Freedom ride- Bus trips taken by both black and white civil rights advocates in the 1960s. Sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE),
freedom rides in the South were designed to test the enforcement of federal regulations that prohibited segregation in interstate public transportation.
French Revolution - A social and political revolution in France (1789-1799) that toppled the monarchy.
Free-Soil party - Organized in 1848, this third party proposed to exclude slavery from federal territories and nominated former President Martin Van
Buren in the presidential election of that year. Most Free Soilers eventually became Republicans.
French and Indian War – The French and Indian War was the fourth and decisive war over colonial possession between France and Great Britain.
This war was unique in that it began in North America and spread to Europe. The British finally won the conflict, giving them dominance in North
America. However, the war also forged the colonists into soldiers and taught them the importance of colonial unity.
Fugitive Slave Law- Passed in 1850, this federal law made it easier for slaveowners to recapture runaway slaves; it also made it easier for
kidnappers to take free blacks. The law became an object of hatred in the North.
Gadsen Purchase – In 1853, Secretary of War Jefferson Davis pushed for the purchase of land from Mexico for present-day New Mexico and
Arizona. The purpose of the $10 million Gadsen Purchase was to create a coast-to-coast rail line in the South. However, Stephen Douglas pushed for
the use of Nebraska for the railroad, and the newly acquired land was not use for its intended purpose.
William Lloyd Garrison – William Lloyd Garrison was an abolitionist who created a newspaper called The Liberator. It was radically against
slavery and quickly gained notoriety. Garrison helped create the American Anti-slavery Society which argued for the freedom of slaves and for
equality with White people. Garrison also supported the right of women to participate equally in the Anti-slavery Society, leading to a split in the
movement.
Marcus Garvey – Marcus Garvey a powerful Black leader during the 1920s, founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and
advocated a mass migration of Black Americans to Africa. His radical movement won a substantial following. Garvey was convinced of fraud in
1923 and was deported to Jamaica in 1927. The UNIA collapsed without his leadership.
Gay liberation movement – In the 1970s, homosexuals began an effort to win social and legal acceptance and to encourage gays to affirm their
sexual identity. Despite some advances, the movement was slowed by the onset of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s and the insistence of the military
on banning openly gay individuals from the armed services.
Ghost Dances – A religious movement that arose in the late nineteenth century under the prophet Wavoka, a Paiute Indian. It involved a set of
dances and rites that its followers believed would cause white men to disappear and restore lands to the Native Americans. The Ghost Dance religion
was outlawed by the U.S. government, and army intervention to stop it led to the Wounded Knee Massacre.
Gibbons v. Ogden – In this 1824 case, the Supreme Court affirmed and expanded the power of the federal government to regulate interstate
commerce.
Gilded Age – In a book written with Charles Dudley Warner, Mark Twain depicted post-Civil War era as a time rife with political corruption. The
term “gilded age” refers to the fact that gold leaf is often placed over a lesser metal. Below the surface of the era was widespread greed and vulgarity.
Later historians have confirmed these observations of the period.
Glorious Revolution – Replacement of James II by William and Mary as English monarchs in 1688, marking the beginning of the constitutional
monarchy in Britain. American colonists celebrated this moment as a victory for the rule of law over despotism.
Gold Rush of 1849 - Individual prospectors made the first gold strikes along the Sierra Nevada Mountains in 1849, touching off a mining boom that
helped shape the development of the West and set the pattern for subsequent strikes in other regions.
Gold Standard Act – Passed by Congress in 1900, this law declared gold the nation’s standard of currency, meaning that all currency in circulation
had to be redeemable in gold. The United States remained on the gold standard until 1933.
Good Neighbor policy – President Hoover’s administration initiated a new approach to Western hemispheric relations. The Good neighbor policy
declared America’s intention to use cooperation and friendship in place of threats and armed intervention in its dealings with Latin America. It was
extended and elaborated by the administration of Franklin Roosevelt.
Gramm-Rudman – The Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1985, popularly known as Gramm-Rudman, revised federal budgeting
procedures. It authorized the president to impose automatic spending reductions to meet annual deficit limits.
Grandfather Clause – Beginning in 1895, many Southern states established the Grandfather Clause, exempting anyone who was able to vote before
1867, or their descendants, from having to meet strict literacy or property requirements for voting. Black men did not have the right to vote until 1870
and were subject to the strict requirements. The Grandfather Clause was symbolic of racial inequalities.
Great Awakening – Widespread evangelical religious revival movement of the mid-1700s. The movement divided congregations and weakened the
authority of established churches in the colonies.
Great (or Connecticut) Compromise – During the Constitutional Convention, two plans for representation in Congress were presented. The
Virginia Plan called for representation determined by population. The New Jersey Plan called for equal representational. The resulting Great (or
Connecticut) Compromise established two houses. The Senate had an equal number of representatives from each state; the House of Representatives
was based on population.
Great Migration – The Great Migration began during World War I and lasted through the 1920s. It was a period when over 400,000 Black
southerners moved to the North to find jobs. Northern businesses recruited Black workers, making the north seem like it would be the land of
opportunity. However, the North was often unwelcoming to the new arrivals.
Great Society – President Johnson called his version of the Democratic reform program the Great Society. In 1965, Congress passed many Great
Society measures, including Medicare, civil rights legislation, and federal aid to education.
Greenbackers – Members of the national Greeback Party, founded in 1874, who wanted to keep wartime paper money (greenbacks) in circulation.
They believed that a floating currency, not tied to either gold or silver, would provide relief to debtors and impoverished farmers by increasing the
money supply.
Greenbacks – paper currency issued by the Union beginning in 1862.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution – After a North Vietnamese attack on American destroyer in the Gulf of Tonkin in 1964, President Johnson persuaded
Congress to pass a resolution giving him the authority to use armed force in Vietnam
Harlem Renaissance – An African American cultural, literary, and artistic movement centered in Harlem, an area in New York City, in the 1920s.
Harlem, the largest black community in the world outside of Africa, was considered the cultural capital of African Americans.
Hartford Convention – The Hartford Convention was convened in December 1814, in reaction to the War of 1812. Some of the New England states
were unhappy with “Mr. Madison’s War” and called for amendments to limit Republican influence. Some representatives even suggested seeding
from the Union. However, the war ended a few weeks later, and the Federalist party fell apart, unable to recover from the stigma of discussing
secession.
Hartford Convention – An assembly of New England federalists who met in Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814 to protest Madison’s foreign
policy in the War of 1812, which had undermined commercial interests in the North. They proposed amending the Constitution to prevent future
presidents from declaring war without a two- thirds majority in Congress.
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty – This 1903 treaty granted the United States control over a canal zone ten miles wide across the Isthmus of Panama. In
return, the United States guaranteed the independence of Panama and agreed to pay Colombia a onetime fee of $10 million and an annual rental of
$250,000.
Haymarket Riot – On May 4, 1886, a demonstration in Chicago’s Haymarket Square to protest the slayings of two workers during a strike turned
into a violent riot after a bomb explosion killed seven policemen. Although the bomb thrower was never found, the incident was blamed on labor
“radicalism” and resulted in public condemnation of organized labor and contributed to the demise of the Knights of Labor.
Headright – System of land distribution in which settlers were granted a fifty-acre plot of land from the colonial government for each servant or
dependent they transported to the New World. The system encouraged the recruitment of a large servile labor force.
Hepburn Act – A law that strengthened the rate-making power of the Interstate Commerce Commission, again reflecting the era’s desire to control
the power of the railroads. It increased the ICC’s membership from five to seven, empowered it to fix reasonable railroad rates, and broadened its
jurisdiction. It also made ICC rulings binding pending court appeals.
Highway Act of 1965 - A significant legislative achievement of Eisenhower’s presidency, the highway Act created the interstate highway system.
The system, built over twenty years, provided jobs in construction, shortened travel times, and increased dependence on the automobile while
weakening the railroads.
Hollywood 10 – During the McCarthy Era, many movie industry people in Hollywood were called before the House to “name names” of
Communists among their ranks. A group of actors, writers, and producers refused to cooperate and were known as the Hollywood 10. To appease
Congress, Hollywood blacklisted these individuals from working in movies.
Homestead Act of 1862 – Legislation granting 160 acres of land to anyone who paid a $10 fee and pledged to live on and cultivate the land for five
years. Although there was a good deal of fraud, the act encouraged a large migration to the West. Between 1862 and 1900, nearly 600,000 families
claimed homesteads under its provisions.
Homestead Strike – In July 1892, wage-cutting at Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Plant in Pittsburgh provoked a violent strike in which three
company-hired detectives and ten workers died. Using ruthless force and strikebreakers, company officials effectively broke this strike and destroyed
the union.
J. Edgar Hoover – J. Edgar Hoover was named the head of the General Intelligence Division of the Justice Department to fight against “radicals”
during the Red Scare after World War I. He aggressively investigated suspected subversives during the Cold War. Director of the FBI from 1924
until his death in 1972, his impact strengthened the FBI.
Hoovervilles – Hoovervilles were communities of destitute Americans living in shanties and makeshift shacks during the time of the Great
Depression. The homeless constructed Hoovervilles around most major U.S. cities in the early 1930s. They were given the name because of
Hoover’s failure to alleviate the poverty of the times.
House of Burgesses – An elective representative assembly in colonial Virginia. It was the first example of representative government in the English
colonies.
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) – The House Un-American Activities Committee provided the congressional forum in which
many hearings about suspected Communists in the government took place. Alger Hiss was famously brought before the committee. Richard Nixon
gained prominence from his actions on the committee, which helped him win the senate in 1950.
House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) – This congressional committee played a prominent role in attempting to uncover and
punish those suspected of aiding the communist cause in the early years of the Cold War.
Hundred Days – The first “hundred days” of President Franklin Roosevelt’s presidency (March 4 to June 6 1933) was a period of dramatic
legislative productivity. During this period, he laid out the programs that constituted the New Deal. His acts often passed through Congress quickly.
An example of this was the Emergency Banking Act, which was passed through Congress in one day.
Hustings – using tree stumps as podiums, traveling orators in America gave speeches on behalf of political parties. These visits were called
“hustings” after a word for stump.
Anne Hutchinson – Anne Hutchinson was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for criticizing the Puritan Church. She and her followers
eventually settled in Portsmouth, Rhode Island and joined with the surrounding town to from the colony of Rhode Island.
Imperialism – The policy of extending a nation’s power through military conquest, economic domination, or annexation.
Indentured servants – Indentured servants were the first cheap labor source for the tobacco fields in Virginia. People eager to gain passage to the
New World, but lacking the money to pay their passage, were able to agree to work for a period of time with no wages until they had paid back their
passage.
Indentured servants – Individuals who agreed to serve a master for a set number of years in exchange for the cost of boat transport to America.
Indentured servitude was the dominant form of labor in the Chesapeake colonies before slavery.
Industrial Revolution – The Industrial Revolution refers to the movie from handmade goods to machine made iterms and the rise of factories. While
it began in England, it moved to America in the late 1700s, progressing slowly at first but then picking up as America began to look to home for
manufactured goods. This was especially true in New England, where manufacturing became central to the economy.
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) – Founded in 1905, this radical union, also known as the Wobblies, aimed to unite the American working
class into one union to promote labor’s interests. It worked to organize unskilled and foreign-born laborers, advocated social revolution, and led
several major strikes. Stressing solidarity, the IWW took as its slogan, “An injury to one is an injury to all.”
Intermediate Nuclear Forces agreement – Signed by President Reagan and Soviet President Gorbachev in Washington in late 1987, this agreement
provided for the destruction of all intermediate-range nuclear missiles and permitted on-site inspection for the first time during the Cold War.
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) – Created by Congress in 1887, this agency was authorized to investigate and oversee railroad activities.
It also outlawed rebates and pooling agreements. An early attempt to remove certain issues form politics and turn them over to experts, the ICC
became a prototype for the federal commissions that regulate many parts of the American economy today.
Iran-Contra Affair – In 1987, the discovery that profits from U.S. arms sales to the anti-American government in Iran had been used to illegally
finance the Contras in Nicaragua resulted in the Iran-Contra Affair. The Contras were a rebel group fighting the Sandinista regime, which had
Communist ties. Colonel Oliver North, a member of the National Security Council, was convicted of organizing this operation.
Iran-Contra affair – The Iran-Contra affair involved officials high in the Reagan administration secretly selling arms to Iran and using the proceeds
to finance the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. This illegal transaction usurped the congressional power of the purse.
Iranian hostage crisis – In 1979, Iranian fundamentalists seized the American embassy in Tehran and held fifty-three American diplomats hostage
for over a year. The Iranian hostage crisis weakened the Carter presidency; the hostages were finally released on January 20, 1981, the day Ronald
Reagan became president.
Iron Curtain – British Prime Minister Winston Churchill coined the phrase “Iron Curtain” to refer to the boundary in Europe that divided Sovietdominated eastern and central Europe from Western Europe, which was free from Soviet control.
Iroquois League – This strong alliance between five tribes force English fur traders to work with the Indians. The French were also able to make
peace with the Iroquois. The Iroquois League became skilled at remaining neutral between the French and British. When the Iroquois sided with the
British during the American Revolution, Washington ordered them destroyed, breaking the federation for good.
Isolationism – A belief that the United States should stay out of entanglements with other nations. Isolationism was widespread after the SpanishAmerican War in the late 1890s and influenced later U.S. foreign policy.
Itinerant preachers – Traveling revivalist ministers of the Great Awakening movement. These charismatic preachers spread revivalism throughout
America.
Jacksonian Democracy- A historian’s term for the political culture of white male citizens in the 1820s and 1830s. It celebrated the “self-made man”
and rejected the idea that leaders should be drawn from the intellectual and economic elite. Andrew Jackson, the first “people’s president,”
exemplified the spirit of the age.
Jamestown – Jamestown, founded in 1607, was the first permanent English settlement in America. The colony endured many hardships in the
beginning, but survived through the leadership of Captain John Smith and the help of local Native Americans. The colony thrived after they began
cultivating tobacco.
Jay’s Treaty – Controversial treaty with Britain negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay in 1794 to settle American grievances and avert war. Though
the British agreed to surrender forts on U.S. territory, the treaty failed to realize key diplomatic goals and provoked a storm of protest in America.
Jazz Age – F. Scott Fitzgerald named the period after World War I and before the Great Depression the Jazz Age. Young people were exhibiting
looser social moves when it came to sexuality. They experimented with new forms of recreation, including listening to jazz music and dancing new
dances such as the Charleston. This created much shock and consternation among traditionalists.
Jim Crow Laws – The Jim Crow laws established a separate society in the South. Black people were segregated and forced to use separate housing,
transportation, schools, and other public facilities. The Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) established the constitutionality of the Jim
Crow laws, ruling that separate was equal. This ruling wasn’t overturned until 195 with Brown v. Board of Education.
Jim Crow Laws – laws enacted by states to segregate the population. They became widespread in the South after Reconstruction.
Joint-stock company – Business enterprise that enabled investors to pool money for commercial trading activity and funder for sustaining colonies.
The Jungle – Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle described the terrible conditions of the Chicago meatpacking industry. When Theodore Roosevelt read
this novel, he pushed for acts such as the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act. These required federal inspection of meat,
placed restrictions on those who handled food and rugs, and forbad mislabeled, altered, or harmful foods, drugs, and liquor.
Kansas-Nebraska Act – This 1854 act repealed the Missouri Compromise, split the Louisiana Purchase into two territories, and allowed its settlers
to accept or reject slavery by popular sovereignty. This act enflamed the slavery issue and led opponents to form the Republican Party.
Kellogg-Briand Pact – Also called the Pact of Paris, this 1929 agreement was the brainchild of U.S. Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg and French
premier Aristide Briand. It pledged its signatories, eventually including nearly all nations, to shun war as an instrument of policy. Derided as an
“international kiss,” it had little effect on the actual conduct of world affairs.
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions – Statements penned by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to mobilize opposition to the Alien and Sedition
Acts, which they argued were unconstitutional. Jefferson’s statement (the Kentucky Resolution) suggested that states should have the right to declare
null and void congressional acts they deemed unconstitutional. Madison produced a more temperate resolution, but most Americans rejected such an
extreme defense of states’ rights.
King Phillip’s War – While Chief Massasoit had been friendly with the New England settlers, his son "King Philip" organized the Indians to attack
the colonists and drive them away. The ensuing war, King Phillip’s War, lasted from 1675-1678. It was costly for settlers, but eventually resulted in
breaking of Indian's power in the region through the New England Confederation.
Knights of Labor – Also known as the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor. Founded in 1869, this labor organization pursued broadgauged reforms as much as practical issues like wages and hours. Unlike the American Federation of Labor, the Knights of Labor welcomed all
laborers regardless of race, gender, or skill.
Know-Nothing Party – Nativism was a fear often akin to hatred of foreign-born immigrants. In the 1830s, nativism was becoming popular and
resulted in the American, or "Know-Nothing," Party. Its goal was to keep all the Catholics and immigrants out of office to add restrictions to
immigration. While many were elected into office from the party, its goals were overshadowed as the Civil War loomed.
Know-Nothing party – After the collapse of the Whig party in the 1850s, the anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic party rose to national prominence.
Though the party enjoyed some success in local and state elections, it failed to sustain its existence and quickly disappeared.
Korean War – In June 1950, troops from Soviet-supported North Korea invaded South Korea. Without asking for a declaration of war, Truman
committed US troops as part of a United Nations "political action." The Korean War was conducted by predominantly American forces under the
command of General Douglas MacArthur. Limited fighting continued until July 1953.
Ku Klux Klan – A secret terrorist society first organized in Tennessee in 1866. The original Klan’s goals were to disfranchise Africa Americans,
stop Reconstruction, and restore the pre-war social order of the South. The Ku Klux Klan re-formed after World War II to promote white supremacy
in the wake of the “Second Reformation.”
Lecompton constitution – In 1857, a fraudulently-elected group of pro-slavery delegates met in Lecompton, Kansas, and drafted a state constitution.
After bitter debate, Congress narrowly denied Kansas’s entry into the Union under this constitution.
Lend-lease program – The Johnson Act of 1934 forbade the government to loan money to warring countries. Roosevelt created the lend-lease
program to get around this law. Lend-lease allowed the president to lend or lease supplies to any nation deemed "vital to the defense of the United
States," such as Great Britain. Lend-lease was extended to Russia in November 1941, when Germany invaded.
Leisler’s Rebellion – In the aftermath of England’s Glorious Revolution in 1688, Jacob Leisler seized control of New York’s government. Although
Lesiler was executed as a traitor, his followers defended his memory against detractors well into the eighteenth century.
Lend-Lease – Arguing that aiding Britain would help America’s own self-defense, President Roosevelt in 1941 asked Congress for a $7 billion
Lend-Lease plan. This would allow the president to sell, lend, lease, or transfer war materials to any country whose defense he declared as vital to
that of the United States.
Levittown – In 1947, William Levitt used mass production techniques to build inexpensive homes in suburban New York to help relieve the postwar
housing shortage. Levittown became a symbol of the movement to the suburbs in the years after World War II.
Lewis and Clark Expedition – Overland expedition to the Pacific coast (1804-1806) led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Commissioned
by President Thomas Jefferson, the exploration of the Far West brought back a wealth of scientific data about the country and its resources.
Liberty Party – America’s first antislavery political party, formed in 1840. When the party ran a president candidate in the 1844 election, it split the
Republican vote and inadvertently tipped the 1844 election in favor of Democrat James Polk.
Limited government – One of the foundational beliefs that formed the Constitution was the idea of limited government. This belief held that
government was limited to the enumerated powers written in the Constitution. Further, specific shared or forbidden powers were also listed.
Everything else was to revert to the states. This helped set up the foundation of Federalism.
Abraham Lincoln – Abraham Lincoln was a firm believer in the Union. Southern secession after his election in 1860 started the Civil War. He is
famous for his Emancipation Proclamation and the Gettysburg Address. Part of his legacy was the desire for the Southern states to gain acceptance
into the Union in a dignified manner. Unfortunately, his assassination did not allow for a resolution to Reconstruction.
John Locke – When James II was overthrown as King of England during the Glorious Revolution in 1689, John Locke wrote "Two Treatises of
Government" in defense. This work argued against the divine rights of kings, and set forth the idea of a social contract where people had natural
rights and the government had the duty to protect those rights. If the government failed to do this, the people had the right to revolt.
Lost Generation – The Lost Generation describes a small but prominent circle of writers, poets, and intellectuals during the 1920s. These artists,
including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Ezra Pound, grew disillusioned with America's postwar culture finding it overly materialistic
and spiritually void. Many of these artists moved to Europe to write, and their writings often expressed their disgust with America's materialism and
superficiality.
Louisiana Purchase – The Louisiana Purchase is remembered as one of Thomas Jefferson's greatest actions while holding office. In 1803, he
purchased the territory from France and it nearly doubled the size of the nation, while opening the west for exploration and settlement. However, the
territory also resulted in numerous border disputes and issues over whether new state would allow slavery.
Louisiana Purchase – U.S. acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 for $15 million. The purchase secured American control of
the Mississippi River and doubled the size of the nation.
Lowell System – Francis Lowell created a factory system for creating cloth from cotton. For the first time, he not only had his workers spinning
cotton but also weaving in the same factory. The Lowell System became very popular in New England, adding to the rise in manufacturing in that
area.
Loyalists – Throughout the conflict with Great Britain, many colonists sided with the king and Parliament. Also called Tories, these people feared
that American liberty might promote social anarchy.
James Madison – James Madison earned the name “Father of the Constitution” because by and large he authored the document. He wrote the
Federalist Papers along with John Jay and Alexander Hamilton in order to persuade New York to ratify the Constitution. Later, he was elected the
fourth president of the United States as a Democratic-Republican. While he was in office, America fought Great Britain in the War of 1812.
Manhattan Project – The Manhattan Project was a secret American scientific initiative to develop an atomic bomb. After almost three years of
work at Los Alamos, New Mexico, the project succeeded with the detonation of the first atomic blast on July 26, 1945. The bombs produced by the
Manhattan Project were subsequently dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.
Manhattan Project – In early 1942, Franklin Roosevelt, alarmed by reports that German scientists were working on an atomic bomb, authorized a
crash program to build the bomb first. The Manhattan Project, named for the Corps of Engineers district originally in charge, spent $2 billion dollars
and produced the weapons that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
Manifest Destiny – Coined in 1845, this term referred to a doctrine in support of territorial expansion based on the beliefs that population growth
demanded territorial expansion, that God supported American expansion, and that national expansion equaled the expansion of freedom.
Horace Mann – Horace Mann was one of the most influential educational reformers of the first half of the nineteenth century. He was secretary of
the Massachusetts Board of Education and instituted many reforms, including increased spending on schools, a lengthened school year, improved
courses of study, a teachers' association, and the division of students into classes with standardized textbooks.
Marbury v. Madison – In 1803, the Supreme Court led by John Marshall ruled that they did not have jurisdiction over the Marbury v. Madison
case, finding that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which allowed the court to rule on such cases, was unconstitutional. This led to the concept of judicial
review, where the Supreme Court had the right to rule on the constitutionality of actions taken by Congress and the president.
Marbury v. Madison – In this 1803 landmark decision, the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by declaring an act of Congress,
the Judiciary Act of 1789, unconstitutional.
March on Washington – In August 1963, civil rights leaders organized a massive rally in Washington to urge passage of President Kennedy’s civil
rights bill. The high point came when Martin Luther King Jr. gave his “I have a Dream” speech to more than 200,000 marchers in front of the
Lincoln Memorial.
Marshall Plan – In 1947, Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a massive economic aid program to rebuild the war-torn economies of
western European nations. The plan was motivated by both humanitarian concerns for the conditions of those nations’ economics and fear that
economic dislocation would promote communism in western Europe.
Massive retaliation - The “new look” defense policy of the Eisenhower administration in the 1950s was to threaten “massive retaliation” with
nuclear weapons in response to any act of aggression by a potential enemy.
Mayflower Compact – Agreement among the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620 to create a civil government at Plymouth Colony.
Mayflower Compact - The Pilgrims sailed to America on the Mayflower in 1620, planning to land in Virginia. Instead, they landed in Plymouth,
Massachusetts. Because they were outside the Virginia area and the government of Jamestown, they created their own agreement called the
Mayflower Compact to enact just and equal laws for the common good. This considered the first example of self-government in America.
McCarthyism – In 1950, Senator Joseph R. McCarthy began a sensational campaign against communists in government that led tomore than four
years of charges and countercharges, ending when the Senate censured him in 1954. McCarthyism became the contemporary name for the red scare
of the 1950s.
McCulloch v. Maryland – Ruling on this banking case in 1819, the Supreme Court propped up the idea of “implied powers” meaning the
Constitution could be broadly interpreted. This pivotal ruling also asserted the supremacy of federal power over state power.
Medicare – The 1965 Medicare Act provided Social Security funding for hospitalization insurance for people over age 65 and a voluntary plan to
cover doctor bills paid in part by the federal government.
Mercantilism – An economic theory that shaped imperial policy throughout the colonial period, mercantilism was built on the assumption that the
world’s wealth was a fixed supply. In order to increase its wealth, a nation needed to export more goods than it imported. Favorable trade and
protective economic policies, as well as new colonial possessions rich in raw materials, were important in achieving this balance.
Mexican-American War – Tension mounted between the United States and Mexico after Teas accepted the U.S. Congress’s offer of admission to
the Union, despite the Mexican government’s opposition. After Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande, the United States declared war against
Mexico in 1846. The Mexican-American war lasted until 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo.
Mexican-American War – Conflict (1846-1848) between the United States and Mexico after the U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico still
considered its own. As victor, the United States acquired vast new territories from Mexico according to the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo.
Middle Passage – The term “middle passage” was given to the route that many slavers took between the west coast of Africa and the New World.
The number of Africans who made this horrific trip to the New World has never been accurately determined, though estimates range from 8 million
to over 20 million.
Military-industrial complex – In his farewell address in January 1961, President Eisenhower used the phrase “military-industrial complex” to warn
about the danger of massive defense spending and the close relationship between the armed forces and industrial corporations that supplied their
weapons.
Missouri Compromise – The admission of Missouri as a state would upset the balance between slave and free states. The resulting Missouri
Compromise in 1820 admitted Missouri as a slave state while Maine was admitted as a free state. Slavery was also eliminated north of latitude
36°30’(Missouri’s southern border). This was considered a victory for the slave states; a congressional balance was maintained.
Missouri compromise – A sectional compromise in Congress in 1820 that admitted Missouri to the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state.
It also banned slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase territory aboce the latitude of 36”30’.
Modern Republicanism – President Eisenhower characterized his views as “Modern Republicanism.” Claiming he was liberal toward people but
conservative about spending public money, he helped balance the federal budget and lower taxes without destroying existing social programs.
Monroe Doctrine - A key foreign policy made by President James Monroe in 1823, it declared the western hemisphere off limits to new European
colonization; in return, the United States promised not to meddle in European affairs.
Montgomery bus boycott – In late 1955, African Americans led by Martin Luther King, Jr., boycotted the buses in Montgomery, Alabama, after
seamstress Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to move to the back of a bus. They boycott, which ended when the Supreme Court ruled in favor of
the protesters, marked the beginning of a new, activist phase of the civil rights movement.
Moral diplomacy – policy adopted by President Woodrow Wilson that rejected the approach of “dollar diplomacy.” Rather than focusing mainly on
economic ties with other nations, Wilson’s policy was designed to bring right principles to the world, preserve peace, and extend to other peoples the
blessings of democracy. Wilson, however, often ended up pursing policies much like those followed by Roosevelt and Taft.
Moral Majority – In 1979, the Reverend Jerry Falwell founded the Moral Majority to combat “amoral liberals,” drug abuse, “coddling” of criminals,
homosexuality, communism, and abortion. The Moral Majority represented the rise of political activism among organized religion’s radical right
wing.
Mormons – The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, or Mormon Church, was founded un what would become Utah in 1847. When Smith
was killed, Brigham Young assumed leadership. By 1850, Utah was a territory, and Young was its governor. Statehood was delayed until 1896,
because of issues with the Mormon practice of polygamy.
Morrill Land Grant Act – In 1862, through the Morrill Land Grant Act, Congress gave each state 30,000 acres of land per Congress member to sell
for the creation of universities. These colleges would be focused on agriculture and the mechanical arts.
Muckrakers – Unflattering term coined by Theodore Roosevelt to describe the writers who made a practice of exposing the wrongdoings of public
figures. Muckraking flourished from 1903 to 1909 in magazines such as McClure’s and Collier’s, exposing social and political problems and
sparking reform.
Mugwumps – Drawing their members mainly from among the educated and upper class, these reformers crusaded for lower tariffs, limited federal
government, and civil service reform to end political corruption. They were best known for their role in helping to elect Grover Cleveland to the
presidency in 1884.
Muller v. Oregon – This Supreme Court decision establish special protections for working women, upholding an Oregon law that limited women
working in factories and laundries to a ten-hour work day. Louis D. Brandeis, attorney for the state of Oregon, argued that because of the importance
of women’s roles as mothers, they deserved special protection from labor abuses. The Brandeis brief, as it was called, was based largely on
sociological data rather than legal evidence, and as a result, expanded the definition of legal evidence.
NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in 1958 to compete with Russia’s space program. It gained prestige and power
with Kennedy’s charge to reach the moon by the end of the 1960s. Over the years, NASA has sent expeditions to the moon, developed and managed
the space station and space shuttle programs, and sent probes to Mars.
National American Women Suffrage Association- The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an American womens'
rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage
Association (AWSA). The NAWSA continued the work of both associations by becoming the parent organization of hundreds of smaller local and
state groups, and by helping to pass woman suffrage legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage
organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for
a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to
the United States Constitution in 1920.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People- The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is an
African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Its mission is “to ensure the political, educational, social, and
economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination”. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition,
uses the once common term colored people.
NAACP – In 1909, a group led by W.E.B. Du Bois formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The NAACP called for
an end to racial discrimination, attacked Jim Crow laws, and fought to overturn the 1896 Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson. The NAACP
continues to advocate integration and equal treatment for Black Americans.
National Defense Education Act- The National Defense Education Act (NDEA), signed into law on September 2, 1958, provided funding to
United States education institutions at all levels. It was one of a suite of science initiatives inaugurated by President Eisenhower in 1958, motivated to
increase the technological sophistication and power of the US alongside, for instance DARPA and NASA. It followed a growing national sense that
U.S. scientists were falling behind scientists in the Soviet Union, catalyzed, arguably, by early Soviet success in the Space Race, notably the launch
of the first-ever satellite, Sputnik, the year before.
National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union- The Farmers' Alliance was an organized agrarian economic movement among American
farmers that developed and flourished in the 1870s and 1880s. The movement included several parallel but independent political organizations — the
National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union among the white farmers of the South, the National Farmers' Alliance among the white and black
farmers of the Midwest and High Plains, where the Granger movement had been strong, and the Colored Farmers' National Alliance and Cooperative
Union, consisting of the African American farmers of the South. One of the goals of the organization was to end the adverse effects of the crop-lien
system on farmers in the period following the American Civil War. The Alliance also generally supported the government regulation of the
transportation industry, establishment of an income tax to better speculative profits, and the adoption of an inflationary relaxation of the nation's
money supply as a means of easing the burden of repayment of loans by debtors. The Farmers' Alliance moved into politics in the early 1890s under
the banner of the People's Party, commonly known as the "Populists."
National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry- The Grange, officially referred to as The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, is
a fraternal organization in the United States which encourages families to band together to promote the economic and political well-being of the
community and agriculture. The Grange, founded after the Civil War in 1867, is the oldest American agricultural advocacy group with a national
scope. Major accomplishments credited to Grange advocacy include passage of the Granger Laws and the establishment of rural free mail delivery.
National Organization for Women (NOW)- NOW was founded on June 30, 1966, in Washington, D.C., by 28 women and men attending the Third
National Conference of State Commissions on the Status of Women, the successor to the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women.[4] It had
been three years since the Commission reported findings of women being discriminated against. However, the 1966 Conference delegates were
prohibited by the administration's rules for the conference from even passing resolutions recommending that the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) enforce its legal mandate to end sex discrimination.
National Organization for Women (NOW) – The National Organization for Women was formed in 1966 and functions to advocate for and raise
public awareness of women’s issues. NOW was a central part of the women’s liberation movement in the 1960s.
National Origins Quota Act- The Immigration Act of 1924, or Johnson–Reed Act, including the National Origins Act, and Asian Exclusion Act was
a United States federal law that limited the annual number of immigrants who could be admitted from any country to 2% of the number of people
from that country who were already living in the United States in 1890, down from the 3% cap set by the Immigration Restriction Act of 1921,
according to the Census of 1890. It superseded the 1921 Emergency Quota Act. The law was aimed at further restricting the Southern and Eastern
Europeans, among them Jews who had migrated in large numbers since the 1890s to escape persecution in Poland and Russia, as well as prohibiting
the immigration of Middle Easterners, East Asians, and Indians. According to the U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian the purpose of the
act was "to preserve the ideal of American homogeneity". Congressional opposition was minimal.
National Origins Act (1924) – In the 1920s, the National Origins Act restricted immigration from any one nation to 2 percent of the number of
people already in the United States who were of that national origin in 1890. This law severely restricted immigration from southern and eastern
Europe, and excluded Asians.
National Reclamation Act ( Newlands Act)- The Reclamation Act is a United States federal law that funded irrigation projects for the arid lands of
20 states in the American West. The act at first covered only 13 of the western states as Texas had no federal lands. Texas was added later by a
special act passed in 1906. The act set aside money from sales of semi-arid public lands for the construction and maintenance of irrigation projects.
The newly irrigated land would be sold and money would be put into a revolving fund that supported more such projects. This led to the eventual
damming of nearly every major western river. Under the act, the Secretary of the Interior created the United States Reclamation Service within the
United States Geological Survey to administer the program. In 1907 the Service became a separate organization within the Department of the Interior
and was renamed the United States Bureau of Reclamation.
National Recovery Administration (NRA) New Deal- The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the primary New Deal agency
established by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in 1933. The goal was to eliminate "cut-throat competition" by bringing industry, labor
and government together to create codes of "fair practices" and set prices. The NRA was created by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and
allowed industries to get together and write "codes of fair competition." The codes were intended to reduce "destructive competition" and to help
workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly hours, as well as minimum prices at which products could be sold. The NRA also had a
two-year renewal charter and was set to expire in June 1935 if not renewed.
National Recovery Administration (NRA) – The National Recovery Administration, perhaps the most important element of the first New Deal,
established a forum in which business and government officials set regulations for fair competition. Created codes include limited work hours and
establishment of minimum wages. These regulations bound industry from 1933 until 1935, when the Supreme Court declared the NRA
unconstitutional.
Navigation Acts – The Navigation Acts, passed by Parliament, allowed only English ships to transport goods to or from the colonies. Further, certain
goods could only be sold to England, including tobacco and sugar. Finally, any goods to be sold in the colonies from other European countries had to
go through England and be taxed first. These acts reinforced the economic concept of mercantilism.
National Security Act- The National Security Act of 1947 was an Act of Congress signed by President Truman on 26 July 1947, which realigned
and reorganized the U.S. Armed Forces, foreign policy, and Intelligence Community apparatus in the aftermath of World War II. The majority of the
provisions of the Act took effect on September 18, 1947, the day after the Senate confirmed James Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. His
power was extremely limited and it was difficult for him to exercise the authority to make his office effective. This was later changed in the
amendment to the act in 1949, creating what was to be the Department of Defense. The Act merged the Department of War and the Department of
the Navy into the National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense. It was also responsible for the creation of a Department of the
Air Force which made the Army Air Forces into its own service.
nationalists- Group of leaders who favored replacing the Articles of Confederation with a stronger national government.
natural rights- The theory of natural law is closely related to the theory of natural rights. During the Age of Enlightenment, natural law theory
challenged the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government
— and thus legal rights — in the form of classical republicanism. Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by some anarchists to challenge
the legitimacy of all such establishments. The idea of human rights is also closely related to that of natural rights; some recognize no difference
between the two and regard both as labels for the same thing, while others choose to keep the terms separate to eliminate association with some
features traditionally associated with natural rights.
Navigation Acts- The English navigation acts were a series of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England (after 1707
Great Britain) and its colonies, a process which had started in 1651. Their goal was to force colonial development into lines favorable to England,
and stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France and other European countries. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed at the
Restoration by Acts of 1660 and 1663, and subsequently subject to minor amendment. These Acts also formed the basis for British overseas trade for
nearly 200 years.
Neoconservatism- Neoconservatism is described as a faction of American conservatism that includes endorsement of political individualism, is
critical of the so-called welfare state, applauds free markets and advocates "assertive" promotion of democracy, and American national interest in
international affairs including by military means. Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, and George W. Bush had neoconservative advisors
regarding military and foreign policies. During the George W. Bush administration, neoconservative officials of the Departments of Defense and
State helped to plan and promote the Iraq War.
neutrality acts- The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia
that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly
involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts. The legacy of the Neutrality
Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as
"belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941,
in the face of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
New Deal- The New Deal was a series of economic programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1936. They involved presidential
executive orders or laws passed by Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were in response to the Great
Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform. That is Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of
the economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression.
New Deal – Coined by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932, the phrase “New Deal” came to stand for his strategy for relief and recovery in the United
States during the Great Depression. Most New Deal measures emerged during the first hundred days of Roosevelt’s presidency. However, the
cornerstone of the New Deal did not come until 1935 with the passage of the Social Security Act.
New Freedom- The New Freedom comprises the campaign speeches and promises of Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential campaign. They
constituted the reforms promoted by Wilson. They called for less government, but in practice as president he added new controls such as the Federal
Reserve System and the Clayton Antitrust Act. More generally the "New Freedom" is associated with Wilson's first term as president (1913-1917).
As President, Wilson focused on three types of reform: 1. Tariff Reform: This came through the passage of the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which
lowered tariffs for the first time since the American Civil War and went against the protectionist lobby. 2. Business Reform: This was established in
1914 through the passage of the Federal Trade Act, which established the Federal Trade Commission to investigate and halt unfair and illegal
business practices by issuing "cease and desist" orders, and the Clayton Anti-Trust Act. 3. Banking Reform: This came in 1913, through the creation
of the Federal Reserve System, and in 1916, through the passage of the Federal Farm Loan Act, which set up Farm Loan Banks to support farmers.
New Freedom – “New freedom” characterized Woodrow Wilson’s approach to foreign relations. Unlike Roosevelt’s Big Stick Diplomacy and
Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy, Wilson’s foreign policy sought to bring morality to foreign relations. Wilson denounced imperialism and economic
meddling, and focused instead on spreading democracy throughout the world.
New Frontier- The term New Frontier was used by liberal Democratic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy in his acceptance speech in the 1960
United States presidential election to the Democratic National Convention at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum as the Democratic slogan to
inspire America to support him. The phrase developed into a label for his administration's domestic and foreign programs. Amongst the legislation
passed by Congress during the Kennedy Administration, unemployment benefits were expanded, aid was provided to cities to improve housing and
transportation, funds were allocated to continue the construction of a national highway system started under Eisenhower, a water pollution control act
was passed to protect the country’s rivers and streams, and an agricultural act to raise farmers’ incomes was made law. A significant amount of antipoverty legislation was passed by Congress, including increases in social security benefits and in the minimum wage, several housing bills, and aid to
economically distressed areas. A few antirecession public works packages, together with a number of measures designed to assist farmers, were
introduced. Major expansions and improvements were made in Social Security (including retirement at 62 for men), hospital construction, library
services, family farm assistance and reclamation. Food stamps for low-income Americans were reintroduced, food distribution to the poor was
increased, and there was an expansion in school milk and school lunch distribution.
New Frontier – John F. Kennedy’s domestic policy, the “New Frontier,” focused on reform at home and on victory abroad in the Cold War. The
term comes from Kennedy’s acceptance speech where he said, “We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier…” His programs, however, had a
difficult time in many ways because he did not win with a huge majority and he had a difficult time working with Democrats in Congress.
“New” immigrants- American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period, the mid-19th century, the start of the 20th
century, and post-1965. Each period brought distinct national groups, races and ethnicities to the United States. During the 17th century,
approximately 175,000 Englishmen migrated to Colonial America. Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and
18th centuries arrived as indentured servants. The mid-19th century saw mainly an influx from northern Europe; the early 20th-century mainly from
Southern and Eastern Europe; post-1965 mostly from Latin America and Asia. Historians estimate that fewer than one million immigrants—perhaps
as few as 400,000—crossed the Atlantic during the 17th and 18th centuries. The 1790 Act limited naturalization to "free white persons"; it was
expanded to include blacks in the 1860s and Asians in the 1950s.In the early years of the United States, immigration was fewer than 8,000 people a
year, including French refugees from the slave revolt in Haiti. After 1820, immigration gradually increased. From 1836 to 1914, over 30 million
Europeans migrated to the United States. The death rate on these transatlantic voyages was high, during which one in seven travelers died. In 1875,
the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875.
New Jersey Plan- The New Jersey Plan (also widely known as the Small State Plan or the Paterson Plan) was a proposal for the structure of the
United States Government presented by William Paterson at the Constitutional Convention on June 15, 1787. The plan was created in response to the
Virginia Plan, which called for two houses of Congress, both elected with apportionment according to population. The less populous states were
adamantly opposed to giving most of the control of the national government to the more populous states, and so proposed an alternative plan that
would have kept the one-vote-per-state representation under one legislative body from the Articles of Confederation. The New Jersey Plan was
opposed by James Madison and Edmund Randolph (the proponents of the Virginia Plan).
New Left – The term New Left was adopted by radical youths such as Tom Hayden, who was a founding member of the Students for a Democratic
Society (SDS) in 1960. Criticizing American capitalism and focusing on individual freedom, the New Left consisted mainly of student groups,
growing more militant as unrest spread from campus to campus.
New Nationalism- Roosevelt made the case for what he called the New Nationalism in a speech in Osawatomie, Kansas, on August 31, 1910. The
central issue he argued was government protection of human welfare and property rights,[1] but he also argued that human welfare was more
important than property rights. He insisted that only a powerful federal government could regulate the economy and guarantee social justice, and that
a President can only succeed in making his economic agenda successful if he makes the protection of human welfare his highest priority. Roosevelt
believed that the concentration in industry was a natural part of the economy. He wanted executive agencies (not the courts) to regulate business. The
federal government should be used to protect the laboring men, women and children from exploitation. In terms of policy, Roosevelt's platform
included a broad range of social and political reforms advocated by progressives.
Niagara Movement- The Niagara Movement was a black civil rights organization founded in 1905 by a group led by W. E. B. Du Bois and William
Monroe Trotter. It was named for the "mighty current" of change the group wanted to effect and Niagara Falls, the Canadian side of which was where
the first meeting took place in July 1905. The Niagara Movement was a call for opposition to racial segregation and disenfranchisement, and it was
opposed to policies of accommodation and conciliation promoted by African American leaders such as Booker T. Washington.
Nixon Tapes – In 1973 it was revealed that President Nixon had made tapes of conversations concerning the cover-up of the Watergate break-in. The
president was taken to court to force him to turn over the tapes. Nixon used the argument of “executive privilege” to fight this order. Nonetheless, the
Supreme Court ruled in 1974 that Nixon must turn over the tapes, which implicated him in the cover-up.
Nixonomics- Nixonomics, a portmanteau of the words “Nixon” and “economics”, refers to U.S. President Richard Nixon's economic performance.
Also Nixon is first president to have his surname combined with the word "Economics". Nixon inherited a weak economy from President Lyndon B.
Johnson, who didn’t follow the advice of his economists. In 1969, a tax bill passed that held several Nixon ideas, including a repeal of the investment
tax credit and removal of two million of the nation's poor from the tax rolls. After a year it was becoming obvious that the plan wasn’t working.
Nixon gave his budget plan to congress in 1971 in which he was to use a $11.6 billion deficit. Nixon then publicly agreed with Keynesian economic
principles which stated that government expenditure could take the nation out of their recession, which was a considerably unusual view for a
Republican president.
nonimportation- The Non-Importation Act was an act passed by the United States Congress on April 18, 1806, which forbade the importation of
certain British goods in an attempt to coerce Great Britain to suspend its impressment of American sailors and to respect American sovereignty and
neutrality on the high seas. This was the first attempt of President Thomas Jefferson's administration to respond economically, instead of militarily, to
the British actions. The act was suspended, but was quickly replaced by the Embargo Act of 1807, which imposed more trade restrictions with
Britain, as well as with France. Another definition is an act passed by Congress on March 25, 1806, before the War of 1812, to ban certain imports
from Britain. It was an attempt to counter British violations of neutrality and to compel Britain to accept American demands. Upon approval, use of
the act was suspended until November 15 to allow for a British response to the threat of losing its American market.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)- The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is an agreement signed by Canada,
Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. It superseded the
Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Canada. NAFTA has two supplements: the North American Agreement on
Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC).
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the
North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states
agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states
across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's
"Partnership for Peace", with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO
members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.
NATO – Formed in 1949 to counter the Soviet threat in Eastern Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization prepared Western European powers
and the United States to fight as unified coalition. There are only seven “member nations” in NATO including the United States, Canada, Great
Britain, and Germany. Throughout the Cold War, NATO was the primary Western alliance in opposition to Communist forces.
Northwest Ordinance- The Northwest Ordinance (formally An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States, North-West of
the River Ohio, and also known as the Freedom Ordinance or "The Ordinance of 1787") was an act of the Congress of the Confederation of the
United States, passed July 13, 1787. The primary effect of the ordinance was the creation of the Northwest Territory, the first organized territory of
the United States, from lands south of the Great Lakes, north and west of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi River.
NSC-68- National Council Report 68 (NSC-68) was a 58-page top secret policy paper issued by the United States National Security Council on April
14, 1950, during the presidency of Harry S. Truman. It was one of the most significant statements of American policy in the Cold War. NSC-68
largely shaped U.S. foreign policy in the Cold War for the next 20 years, and involved a decision to make Containment against Communist expansion
a high priority. The strategy outlined in NSC-68 arguably achieved ultimate victory with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent
emergence of a "new world order" centered on American liberal-capitalist values alone. Truman officially signed NSC-68 on September 30, 1950. It
was declassified in 1975.
nullification- the theory of nullification is based on a view that the States formed the Union by an agreement (or "compact") among the States, and
that as creators of the federal government, the States have the final authority to determine the limits of the power of that government. Under this, the
compact theory, the States and not the federal courts are the ultimate interpreters of the extent of the federal government's power. Under this theory,
the States therefore may reject, or nullify, federal laws that the States believe are beyond the federal government's constitutional powers. The related
idea of interposition is a theory that a state has the right and the duty to "interpose" itself when the federal government enacts laws that the state
believes to be unconstitutional. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison set forth the theories of nullification and interposition in the Kentucky and
Virginia Resolutions in 1798. A more extreme assertion of state sovereignty is the related action of secession, by which a state terminates its political
affiliation with the Union.
Nullification – John C. Calhoun was one of the strongest defenders of states’ rights before the Civil War. He believed that states were sovereign and,
therefore, should have a right to judge and declare acts unconstitutional. This doctrine of nullification had been at issue since the 1828 “tariff of
abominations.” The idea arose again as sectional problems increased in the years leading up to the Civil War.
Ocala Demands- The "Demands" adopted by the Ocala convention called for the abolition of national banks; the establishment of sub-treasuries or
depositories in every state, which would make low interest direct loans to farmers and property owners; the increase of money in circulation to not
less than $50 per capita; the abolishment of futures of all agricultural and mechanical productions; the introduction of free silver; the prohibition of
alien ownership of land, the reclamation of all lands held by railroads and other corporations in excess of what was actually used and needed by
them, held for actual settlers only; legislation to ensure that one industry was not be built up at the expense of another; removal of the tariff tax on
necessities of life; a graduated income tax; the limitation of all national and state revenues to the necessary expenses of the government economically
and honestly administered; strict regulation or ownership of the means of public communication and transportation; and an amendment of the United
States Constitution providing for the direct election of United States Senators.
Old South- Geographically, the Old South is a subregion of the American South, differentiated from the "Deep South" as being the Southern States
represented in the original thirteen American colonies, as well as a way of describing the former lifestyle in the Southern United States. Culturally,
the term can be used to describe the antebellum period. In Colonial times, it was largely dominated by slave-owning plantations.
Oneida community- The Oneida Community was a religious commune founded by John Humphrey Noyes in 1848 in Oneida, New York. The
community believed that Jesus had already returned in AD 70, making it possible for them to bring about Jesus's millennial kingdom themselves, and
be free of sin and perfect in this world, not just Heaven (a belief called Perfectionism). The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense
of communal property and possessions), Complex Marriage, Male Continence, Mutual Criticism and Ascending Fellowship. There were smaller
Noyesian communities in Wallingford, Connecticut; Newark, New Jersey; Putney and Cambridge, Vermont. The community's original 87 members
grew to 172 by February 1850, 208 by 1852, and 306 by 1878. The branches were closed in 1854 except for the Wallingford branch, which operated
until devastated by a tornado in 1878. The Oneida Community dissolved in 1881, and eventually became the giant silverware company Oneida
Limited.
Open Door Policy- The Open Door Policy is a concept in foreign affairs, which usually refers to the policy in 1899 allowing multiple Imperial
powers access to China, with none of them in control of that country. As a theory, the Open Door Policy originates with British commercial practice,
as was reflected in treaties concluded with Qing Dynasty China after the First Opium War (1839–1842). Through the acquisition of the Philippine
Islands, and when the partition of China by the European powers and Japan seemed imminent, the United States felt its commercial interests in China
were threatened. U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to
declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports
within their spheres of influence in China. The open door policy stated that all European nations, and the United States, could trade with China.
Open Door Policy – developed by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, the Open Door Policy aimed to combat the European spheres of influence
that threatened to squeeze American business interests out of Chinese markets. The policy consisted of pressuring European powers to open key ports
within their sphere of influence to U.S. businessmen.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)- OPEC is the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. It is an oil cartel
whose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries. The goal is to secure a steady income to the member states and a secure
supply of oil to the consumers. Those who invest in petroleum activities should receive a fair return on their investments.[2]OPEC is an
intergovernmental organization that was created at the Baghdad Conference on September 10-14 1960, by Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and
Venezuela. Later it was joined by nine more governments: Libya, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Indonesia, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Angola, and
Gabon. OPEC was headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland before moving to Vienna, Austria, on September 1, 1965.OPEC was formed at a time when
the international oil market was largely separate from centrally planned economies, and was dominated by multinational companies. OPEC's ‘Policy
Statement' states that there is a right of all countries to exercise sovereignty over their natural resources.
Ostend Manifesto- The Ostend Manifesto was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from
Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused. Cuba's annexation had long been a goal of U.S. expansionists, particularly as
the U.S. set its sights southward following the admission of California to the Union. However, diplomatically, the country had been content to see the
island remain in Spanish hands so long as it did not pass to a stronger power such as Britain or France. A product of the debates over slavery in the
United States, Manifest Destiny, and the Monroe Doctrine, the Ostend Manifesto proposed a shift in foreign policy, justifying the use of force to
seize Cuba in the name of national security.
Overland Trail- The Overland Trail (also known as the Overland Stage Line) was a stagecoach and wagon trail in the American West during the
19th century. While portions of the route had been used by explorers and trappers since the 1820s, the Overland Trail was most heavily used in the
1860s as an alternative route to the Oregon, California and Mormon trails through central Wyoming. The Overland Trail was famously used by the
Overland Stage Company owned by Ben Holladay to run mail and passengers to Salt Lake City, Utah via stagecoaches in the early 1860s. Starting
from Atchison, Kansas the trail descended into Colorado before looping back up to southern Wyoming and rejoining the Oregon Trail at Fort
Bridger. The stage line operated until 1869 when the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad eliminated the need for mail service via
stagecoach.
Panama Canal – The Panama Canal is an artificial waterway that stretches across Panama, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was
championed by Theodore Roosevelt and built between 1904 and 1914. Many people died of malaria while building the canal. Until 1999, when
Panama gained control of the canal, the United States had the ability to regulate all ship movement through the canal.
Panic of 1819 – The panic of 1819 was the start of a two-year depression caused by extensive speculation, the loose lending practices of state banks,
a decline in European demand for American staple goods, and mismanagement within the second Bank of the United States. The panic of 1819
exacerbated social divisions within the United States and is often called the beginning of the end of the Era of Good Feelings.
Panic of 1837- The Panic of 1837 was a financial crisis in the United States that touched off a major recession that lasted until the mid-1840s.
Profits, prices and wages went down while unemployment went up.
Panic of 1873 – In 1873, because of loan defaults and over speculation, Jay Cooke and Company, one of the largest investment firms in the nation,
went bankrupt. Financial panic ensued and the stock market actually closed for ten days. Many smaller banks and business firms collapsed. The panic
of 1873 precipitated a depression that lasted for six years, longer than America had ever previously suffered.
parliamentary sovereignty- Parliamentary sovereignty (also called parliamentary supremacy or legislative supremacy) is a concept in the
constitutional law of some parliamentary democracies. It holds that the legislative body has absolute sovereignty, and is supreme over all other
government institutions, including executive or judicial bodies. The concept also holds that the legislative body may change or repeal any previous
legislation, and so that it is not bound by written law (in some cases, even a constitution) or by precedent. Parliamentary sovereignty may be
contrasted with the doctrines of separation of powers, which limits the legislature's scope often to general law-making, and judicial review, where
laws passed by the legislature may be declared invalid in certain circumstances. Many states have sovereign legislatures, among which are the United
Kingdom, Finland, Israel, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and others.
Peace of Paris (1763) – The Peace of Paris was the treaty that ended the French and Indian War, as it was known in the New World, or the Seven
Years War as it was called in Europe. As a result of France’s loss in the war, they gave up all of their possessions in North America. This effectively
gave Great Britain supreme power in North America east of the Mississippi.
Pearl Harbor-The attack on Pearl Harbor (called Hawaii Operation or Operation AI by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (Operation Z in
planning) and the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base
at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan). From the standpoint of the defenders, the attack commenced at
7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time. The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions
the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States.
Pendleton Act- The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of United States is a federal law established in 1883 that stipulated that government jobs
should be awarded on the basis of merit. The act provided selection of government employees by competitive exams,[1] rather than ties to politicians
or political affiliation. It also made it illegal to fire or demote government employees for political reasons and prohibits soliciting campaign donations
on Federal government property. To enforce the merit system and the judicial system, the law also created the United States Civil Service
Commission. A crucial result was the shift of the parties to reliance on funding from business, since they could no longer depend on patronage
hopefuls.
Pentagon Papers- The Pentagon Papers, officially titled United States – Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of
Defense, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political-military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967. The
papers were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971. A 1996 article in The New York Times
said that the Pentagon Papers "demonstrated, among other things, that the Lyndon Baines Johnson Administration had systematically lied, not only to
the public but also to Congress, about a subject of transcendent national interest and significance". The report was declassified and publicly released
in June 2011.
People’s (or Populist) party- The People's Party, also known as the "Populists", was a short-lived political party in the United States established in
1891 during the Populist movement (United States, 19th Century). It was most important in 1892-96, and then rapidly faded away. Based among
poor, white cotton farmers in the South (especially North Carolina, Alabama, and Texas) and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the plains states
(especially Kansas and Nebraska), it represented a radical crusading form of agrarianism and hostility to banks, railroads, and elites generally. It
sometimes formed coalitions with labor unions, and in 1896 the Democrats endorsed their presidential nominee, William Jennings Bryan. The terms
"populist" and "populism" are commonly used for anti-elitist appeals in opposition to established interests and mainstream parties.
Phillipine-American War- The Philippine–American War, also known as the Philippine War of Independence or the Digmaang Pilipino-Amerikano
(1899–1902), was an armed conflict between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries. The conflict arose from the struggle of the First
Philippine Republic to gain independence following annexation by the United States. The war was part of a series of conflicts in the Philippine
struggle for independence, preceded by the Philippine Revolution and the Spanish–American War.
Philippines – At the conclusion of the Spanish-American War, the Philippines were ruled by the United States. The United States helped build the
infrastructure of the islands but also controlled the political process. They did not gain full independence until after World War II.
placer mining- Placer mining is frequently used for precious metal deposits (particularly gold) and gemstones, both of which are often found in
alluvial deposits—deposits of sand and gravel in modern or ancient stream beds, or occasionally glacial deposits. The metal or gemstones, having
been moved by stream flow from an original source such as a vein, is typically only a minuscule portion of the total deposit. Since gems and heavy
metals like gold are considerably more dense than sand, they tend to accumulate at the base of placer deposits.
Platt Amendment- The Platt Amendment of 1901 was an amendment to the military appropriations bill, constrained by the earlier Teller
Amendment that forbade annexation of Cuba. It dictated the conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba at the end of the
Spanish-American War and defined the terms of Cuban-U.S. relations, until it was abrogated by the 1934 Treaty of Relations. The Amendment,
whose clauses were incorporated into the 1903 Treaty of Relations verbatim, allowed unilateral U.S. involvement in Cuban affairs and mandated
negotiation for military bases on the island including Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.
Platt Amendment – The Platt Amendment passed Congress in 1901 and restricted the independence of the Cuban government. It authorized
American withdrawal from Cuba only on the following conditions: Cuba vowed to make no treaty with a foreign power limiting its independence,
the United States reserved the right to intervene in Cuba, and the U.S. could maintain a naval base at Guantanamo Bay.
Plessy v Ferguson- Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), is a landmark United States Supreme Court decision in the jurisprudence of the United States,
upholding the constitutionality of state laws requiring racial segregation in public facilities under the doctrine of "separate but equal". The decision
was handed down by a vote of 7 to 1 with the majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown and the dissent written by Justice John
Marshall Harlan. "Separate but equal" remained standard doctrine in U.S. law until its repudiation in the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v.
Board of Education.
popular soverienty- Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the principle that the authority of the government is created and
sustained by the consent of its people, who are the source of all political power. It is closely associated with republicanism and social contract
philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Popular sovereignty expresses a concept and does not necessarily
reflect or describe a political reality. It is usually contrasted with the concept of parliamentary sovereignty, and with individual sovereignty.
Popular Sovereignty – Popular sovereignty is the belief that the power of the government truly belongs to the people. It is often related to the
Compromise of 185- and the belief that the people of a region should be able to decide whether slavery should be legalized.
Populist Party – The Populist Party was formed in the 1890s from numerous farmers’ alliances. The party backed issues like an increase in paper
money and the free coinage of silver. The party strengthened after the panic of 1893. In 1896, they backed Democrat William Jennings Bryan for
president. The party did not last much longer than the end of the nineteenth century.
Potsdam Conference- The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, occupied
Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945. (In some older documents it is also referred to as the Berlin Conference of the Three Heads of
Government of the USSR, USA and UK Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The three powers were
represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill, and, later, Clement Attlee, and President
Harry S. Truman.
Powhatan Confederacy – The Indians of the James River region were led by Chief According to legend, John Smith was captured by the tribe and
was saved only with the help of Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas. She would later marry John Rolfe and travel to England. Peace lasted between the
settlers and the tribes until Powhatan’s death.
Pragmatism- Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that originated in the United States around 1870. Important positions characteristic of
pragmatism include instrumentalism, radical empiricism, verificationism, conceptual relativity, and fallibilism.[citation needed] There is general
consensus among pragmatists that philosophy should take the methods and insights of modern science into account. Charles Sanders Peirce (and his
pragmatic maxim) deserves much of the credit for pragmatism, along with later twentieth century contributors, William James and John Dewey.
Pragmatism enjoyed renewed attention after W. V. O. Quine and Wilfrid Sellars used a revised pragmatism to criticize logical positivism in the
1960s. Another brand of pragmatism, known sometimes as neopragmatism, gained influence through Richard Rorty, the most influential of the late
twentieth century pragmatists. Contemporary pragmatism may be broadly divided into a strict analytic tradition and a "neo-classical" pragmatism
(such as Susan Haack) that adheres to the work of Peirce, James, and Dewey. The word pragmatism derives from Greek πρᾶγμα (pragma), "deed,
act", "to pass over, to practise, to achieve".
Pragmatism – Pragmatism is a philosophy that states that something is only meaningful and worthwhile if it has observable and practical
consequences. This theory was set forth by William James, a professor at Harvard. His theory of philosophy focused on actual results. It had an
important influence on John Dewey who used it to promote social reform, especially in terms of education.
Preemption- Preemption is a term used in the nineteenth century United States to refer to a settler's right to purchase public domain land at the
federally set minimum price; it was a right of first refusal. Usually this was conferred to male heads of households who developed the property into a
farm. If he was a citizen or was taking steps to become one, and he and his family developed the land (buildings, fields, fences), he had the right to
then buy that land for the minimum price. Land was otherwise sold through auction and would be overpriced for these settlers. Preemption is similar
to squatter's rights and mining claims.
Progressive Era – The Progressive Era lasted from 1900-1917. It was marked by numerous reform movements in the political, economic, and social
spheres. President Roosevelt was one of the leading politicians of the Progressive Era. National organizations like the NAACP, writers and
muckrakers like Ida M. Tarbell and Upton Sinclair, and reformers like Jane Addams led the charge for social reform.
Progressivism- Progressivism is a general political philosophy advocating or favoring gradual social, political, and economic reform. Modern
Progressivism emerged as part of a more general response to the vast social changes brought by industrialization. It is left of center in the political
spectrum and is to be contrasted with conservatism on the right and the revolutionary left, the former generally resisting changes it advocates and the
latter rejecting its gradualism.
Progresive party- The Progressive Party of 1912 was an American political party. It was formed by former President Theodore Roosevelt, after a
split in the Republican Party between himself and President William Howard Taft. The party also became known as the Bull Moose Party when
former President Roosevelt boasted, "It takes more than that to kill a bull moose" while giving a scheduled campaign speech minutes after being
wounded in an assassination attempt during the 1912 campaign in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Prohibition- Prohibition in the United States was a national ban on the sale, production, and transportation of alcohol, in place from 1920 to 1933.
The dry movement was led by rural Protestants in both political parties, and was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League. The ban was mandated by
the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and the Volstead Act set down the rules for enforcing the ban and defined the types of alcoholic
beverages that were prohibited. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol was not made illegal. Prohibition ended with the ratification of the
Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, on December 5, 1933.
Prohibition – The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified on January 16, 1919, prohibited the manufacture, transport, or sale of alcoholic beverages. The
period of “prohibition” was one of a growth in crime, especially related to the illegal transport and sale of alcohol. The amendment was sporadically
enforced, violated by many, and repealed in 1933 with the passing of the Twenty-First Amendment.
Protestant Reformation- The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century schism within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John
Calvin and other early Protestants. It was sparked by the 1517 posting of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses. The efforts of the self-described "reformers",
who objected to ("protested") the doctrines, rituals, leadership and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led to the creation of new
national Protestant churches. The Reformation was precipitated by earlier events within Europe, such as the Black Death and the Western Schism,
which eroded people's faith in the Catholic Church and the Papacy that governed it. This, as well as many other factors, such as spread of
Renaissance ideas and inventions, such as the invention of the printing press, and the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire, contributed to the creation of
Protestantism.
Pullman Strike- The Pullman Strike was a nationwide conflict in the summer of 1894 between the new American Railway Union (ARU) and
railroads that occurred in the United States. It shut down much of the nation's freight and passenger traffic west of Detroit, Michigan. The conflict
began in the town of Pullman, Illinois, on May 11 when nearly 4,000 employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company began a wildcat strike in
response to recent reductions in wages. Most factory workers who built Pullman cars lived in the planned worker community of Pullman. The
industrialist George Pullman had designed it as a model community, but he controlled it thoroughly. When his company laid off workers and lowered
wages, it did not reduce rents, and the workers called for a strike. They had not formed a union.
Puritans- The Puritans were a significant grouping of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, including, but not limited to, English
Calvinists. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some Marian exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558,
as an activist movement within the Church of England. The designation "Puritan" is often incorrectly used, notably based on the assumption that
hedonism and puritanism are antonyms. Historically, the word was used pejoratively to characterize the Protestant group as extremists similar to the
Cathari of France, and according to Thomas Fuller in his Church History dated back to 1564, Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and
"precisian" with the sense of modern "stickler".
Puritans – Puritans were a group within the Anglican Church that wished to reform the Church by simplifying or purifying it. Some of these people
eventually settled in Massachusetts and created the Massachusetts Bay Colony. John Winthrop, a Puritan, was the first governor of the colony.
Quakers- Quakers, or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements which collectively are known as the Religious Society of Friends.
Friends' central doctrine is the priesthood of all believers, a doctrine derived from a verse in the New Testament, Most Quakers view themselves as a
Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity.
Radical Reconstruction- From 1863 to 1869, Presidents Abraham Lincoln, and Andrew Johnson (who became president on April 15, 1865) took a
moderate position designed to bring the South back to normal as soon as possible, while the Radical Republicans (as they called themselves) used
Congress to block the moderate approach, impose harsh terms, and upgrade the rights of the Freedmen (former slaves). The views of Lincoln and
Johnson prevailed until the election of 1866, which enabled the Radicals to take control of policy, remove former Confederates from power, and
enfranchise the Freedmen. A Republican coalition came to power in nearly all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a
free labor economy, with support from the Army and the Freedmen's Bureau. The Radicals, upset at President Johnson's opposition to Congressional
Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges but the action failed by one vote in the Senate. President Ulysses S. Grant supported Radical
Reconstruction and enforced the protection of African Americans in the South through the use of the Force Acts passed by Congress. President Grant
used both the U.S. Justice Department and the U.S. military to suppress white insurgency and support Republican reconstructed states. Southern
Democrats, who strongly opposed African American equality to whites, alleged widespread corruption, counterattacked and regained power in each
state by 1877. President Rutherford B. Hayes blocked efforts to overturn Reconstruction legislation.
Radical Republicans- The Radical Republicans were a loose faction of American politicians within the Republican Party from about 1854 (before
the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877. They called themselves "radicals" and were opposed during the war by moderates
and conservative factions led by Abraham Lincoln and after the war by self-described "conservatives" (in the South) and "liberals" (in the North).
Radicals strongly opposed slavery during the war and after the war distrusted ex-Confederates, demanding harsh policies for the former rebels, and
emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for Freedmen (recently freed slaves).
Reaganomics – “Reaganomics” refers to Ronald Reagan’s economic philosophy. Reagan’s supply-side economics postulated that a capitalist system,
free from taxation and government involvement, would be most productive, and that the prosperity of a rich upper class would “trickle down” to the
poor.
Realism – Realism was a literary movement that arose in reaction to romanticism. It was at its height between 1860 and 1890. An increased interest
in the scientific method and the desire to rely on reason and logic created the need to show the world as it really was. Writers such as Henry James
and Mark Twain were realists who attempted to provide an accurate representation of American life.
Red Scare- The first Red Scare began following the Bolshevik Russian Revolution of 1917 and the intensely patriotic years of World War I as
anarchist and left-wing social agitation aggravated national, social, and political tensions. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist
Party, Murray B. Levin wrote that the "Red Scare" was "a nation-wide anti-radical hysteria provoked by a mounting fear and anxiety that a Bolshevik
revolution in America was imminent—a revolution that would change Church, home, marriage, civility, and the American way of Life." Newspapers
exacerbated those political fears into xenophobia — because varieties of radical anarchism were becoming popular as perceived solutions to poverty,
and the advocates were often recent European immigrants (cf. hyphenated-Americans). Moreover, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)
backed several labor strikes in 1916 and 1917 that the press portrayed as radical threats to American society inspired by left-wing, foreign agents
provocateur. Thus, the press misrepresented legitimate labor strikes as "crimes against society", "conspiracies against the government", and "Plots to
establish Communism".
Red Scare – After World War I and the Russian Revolution, public reaction turned against all things “radical.” Fears of revolution caused people to
react negatively to labor strikes and race riots. The government began with “witch hunts” aimed at identifying radicals and Communists. The Red
Scare ended by 1920. It would resurface again after World War II.
Redeemers- In United States history, "Redeemers" and "Redemption" were terms used by white Southerners to describe a political coalition in the
Southern United States during the Reconstruction era which followed the American Civil War. Redeemers were the southern wing of the Bourbon
Democrats, the conservative, pro-business faction in the Democratic Party, who sought to oust the Republican coalition of freedmen, carpetbaggers,
and scalawags.
Renaissance- As a cultural movement, it encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century
resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch, the development of linear perspective and other
techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed the
development of the conventions of diplomacy, and in science an increased reliance on observation. Historians often argue this intellectual
transformation was a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits,
as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da
Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".
Republicanism- Republicanism is the ideology of governing a society or state as a republic, where the head of state is appointed by means other than
heredity, often through elections. The exact meaning of republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context. The term "republic"
may indicate 'rule by many people and by law', as opposed to monarchy, or arbitrary rule by one person. Republicanism existed as an identifiable
movement in the Roman Republic, where the founder of the Republic, Lucius Junius Brutus denounced the former Roman Kingdom and had the
Roman people declare a solemn oath to never allow a monarchy to return again.
Revolution of 1800 – The election of 1800 was a revolution in terms of a change in political ideology. The revolution of 1800 was the first election
in American history in which one party left office peacefully while another party took over the government.
Robber barons – “Robber barons” was the name given to wealthy entrepreneurs and businessmen during the Industrial Age. Among the more
famous robber barons were Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller.
Jackie Robinson – In 1947, Jackie Robinson was the first Black baseball player to play in the Major League. From 1884 to 1947, baseball was a
completely segregated sport. After Robinson played for the Brooklyn Dodgers, other Black players followed in his footsteps.
Roe v Wade- Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court on the issue of abortion. Decided
simultaneously with a companion case, Doe v. Bolton, the Court ruled 7–2 that a right to privacy under the due process clause of the 14th
Amendment extended to a woman's decision to have an abortion, but that right must be balanced against the state's two legitimate interests in
regulating abortions: protecting prenatal life and protecting women's health. Arguing that these state interests became stronger over the course of a
pregnancy, the Court resolved this balancing test by tying state regulation of abortion to the trimester of pregnancy.
John Rolfe – John Rolfe was a settler in Jamestown, Virginia, who is credited with creating a more palatable tobacco, which grew into the staple
export of Virginia. He later married Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan.
Eleanor Roosevelt – The wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the thirty-second president of the United States, Eleanor Roosevelt was known for her
humanitarian efforts. She headed a United Nations commission that drafted the Declaration of Human Rights. She also established the precedent of
first ladies being active in the public arena on health, education, and social matters.
Roosevelt Corollary-The Roosevelt Corollary is a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that was articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his
State of the Union Address in 1904. The corollary states that the United States will intervene in conflicts between European Nations and Latin
American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their claims directly. The Roosevelt
Corollary was supposed to be an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, however, it could be seen as a departure. While the Monroe Doctrine said
European countries should stay out of Latin America, the Roosevelt Corollary took this further to say he had the right to exercise military force in
Latin American countries in order to keep European countries out.
Rosie the Riveter – Rosie the Riveter was a popular advertising character during World War II. Holding a pneumatic rivet gun, Rosie symbolized
the important role American women played in the war effort at home. Women started working in factories to make weapons and armaments for the
military. The image of Rosie portrayed a vastly different picture of American womanhood than had been seen before.
Sanitary Commision- Arising from a meeting in New York City of the Women's Central Relief Association of New York, the organization was
inspired by the British Sanitary Commission of the Crimean War. The volunteers raised money ($25 million), collected donations, worked as nurses,
ran kitchens in army camps, administered hospital ships, soldiers' homes, lodges, and rests for traveling or disabled soldiers, made uniforms, and
organized Sanitary Fairs to support the Federal army with funds and supplies. Women that worked hard, often traveled great distances, and in other
than ideal situations, included Louisa May Alcott, Almira Fales, Eliza Emily Chappell Porter, Katherine Prescott Wormeley and many others.
Scalawags - the term scalawags was used by southerners to describe White southerners who worked with carpetbaggers and black people. Many of
these individuals were in sympathy with the North during the Civil War or were looking for personal gain.
Scopes trial- The Scopes Trial, formally known as The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes and commonly referred to as the Scopes Monkey
Trial, was a famous American legal case in 1925 in which a high school teacher, John Scopes, was accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act,
which made it unlawful to teach evolution in any state-funded school. The trial was deliberately staged in order to attract publicity to the small town
of Dayton, Tennessee, where it was held. Scopes was unsure whether he had ever actually taught evolution, but he purposefully incriminated himself
so that the case could have a defendant.
Secession - with the election of Abraham Lincoln decided along sectional lines, the nation was obviously divided politically. On December 20, 1860,
the state of South Carolina voted for an Ordinance of Secession, and began the process of dividing the nation along actual boundary lines. Eventually
seven states would secede from the Union and form the Confederate States of America.
Second Continental Congress - The Second Continental Congress was called by the colonists in May of 1775 to decide between submitting to
England’s rule or continuing their resistance. They decided to resist and and established an army, making George Washington commander. The
colonies also attempted one last petition to the king to establish a peaceful relationship with the crown called the Olive Branch Petition. It was
refused.
Second Continental Congress- The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the thirteen colonies that started meeting on
May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. It succeeded the First Continental
Congress, which met between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774, also in Philadelphia. The second Congress managed the colonial war effort,
and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. By raising armies,
directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties, the Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the
United States.
Second Great Awakening - The Second Great Awakening began around 1800 through a fear of rising secularism. Methodists and Baptists led a
series of revivals starting on the frontier with camp meetings and then moving east. Evangelists stressed the idea that salvation was available to all.
By 1830-1831, churches became more numerous. Eventually, Charles Grandison Fruey arose as the most important figure in revivalism.
Second Great Awakening- The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement during the early 19th century in the United States. The
movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and after 1820 membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations
whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, deism, and rational
Christianity, although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood. It enrolled millions of new
members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded
a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements designed to remedy the evils of society
before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ.
Second New Deal - After the First New Deal began to crumble in the face of opposition and antagonistic Supreme Court rulings, Franklin D.
Roosevelt laid out plans for the second New Deal in 1935. This was characterized by greater government spending and increased numbers of work
relief programs. The most lasting measure of the second New Deal was the craetion of the Social Security system.
Second party system- The Second Party System is a term of periodization used by historians and political scientists to name the political party
system existing in the United States from about 1828 to 1854, after the First Party System. The system was characterized by rapidly rising levels of
voter interest beginning in 1828, as demonstrated by Election Day turnout, rallies, partisan newspapers, and a high degree of personal loyalty to
party. The major parties were the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, assembled by Henry Clay from the National
Republicans and other opponents of Jackson. Minor parties included the Anti-Masonic Party, which was an important innovator from 1827 to 1834;
the abolitionist Liberty Party in 1840; and the anti-slavery Free Soil Party in 1848 and 1852. The Second Party System reflected and shaped the
political, social, economic and cultural currents of the Jacksonian Era, until succeeded by the Third Party System.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) - The Securities and Exchange Commission was created in 1934 to regulate the stock market. It
enforced the Securities ACt of May 1933, which required that investors know particular information about a stock. The commission was established
to prevent a recurrence of the stock market crash of 1929, and to reduce abuses in the system.
Sedition Act- The Democratic-Republicans used the Alien and Sedition Acts as an important issue in the 1800 election. Thomas Jefferson, upon
assuming the Presidency, pardoned those still serving sentences under the Sedition Act, though he also used the acts to prosecute several of his own
critics before the acts expired. It has been said that the Alien Acts were aimed at Albert Gallatin; and the Sedition Act aimed at Benjamin Bache's
Aurora. While government authorities prepared lists of aliens for deportation, many aliens fled the country during the debate over the Alien and
Sedition Acts, and Adams never signed a deportation order. The Alien and Sedition Acts were, however, never appealed to the Supreme Court,
whose right of judicial review was not established until Marbury v. Madison in 1803. Subsequent mentions in Supreme Court opinions beginning in
the mid-20th century have assumed that the Sedition Act would today be found unconstitutional.
Selective Service Act of 1917 - The Selective Service Act instituted conscription to build up U.S. military forces after it was realized that the
military was not able to effectively fight in World War I without many more soldiers. Passed in May 1917, the act required all men aged 21 to 30 to
register for military duty.
Selective Service Act- The Selective Service Act or Selective Draft Act authorized the federal government to raise a national army for the American
entry into World War I through conscription. It was envisioned in December 1916 and brought to President Woodrow Wilson's attention shortly after
the break in relations with Germany in February 1917. The Act itself was drafted by then-Captain (later Brigadier General) Hugh Johnson after the
United States entered World War I by declaring war on Germany. The Act was canceled with the end of the war on November, 1918. The Act was
upheld by the United States Supreme Court in the Selective Draft Law Cases in 1918, a decision based partially on Vattel's The Law of Nations of
1758.
Seneca Falls Convention - The Seneca Falls Convention, called by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, discussed women’s rights and issues.
It resulted in the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence, and stated that women should be treated
equally with men. This convention signified the beginning of a long road towards women’s rights.
Seneca Falls Convention- The Seneca Falls Convention was an early and influential women's rights convention, the first to be organized by women
in the Western world, in Seneca Falls, New York. It spanned two days: 19 July 1848 and 20 July 1949. New York women, upon the occasion of a
visit by Philadelphia-based Lucretia Mott, a Quaker famous for her oratorical ability, planned the event. Mott's oratorical ability was rare for this era
during which women were often not allowed to speak in public. Female Quakers local to the area organized the meeting along with Elizabeth Cady
Stanton, a skeptical non-Quaker.
Separation of Powers - The framers of the Constitution decided that government should be divided into the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches. According to this separation of powers, each branch of government would have its own duties and structure. The legislative branch would
make laws, the executive branch would enforce the laws, and the judicial branch would interpret the laws.
Separatists - The separatists were reformers of the Anglican Church who decided that the best way to reform the Church was to create a new church,
unlike the Puritans who only wanted reform. To escape religious persecution, they fled to Holland and eventually made their way to the New World.
The most famous group of separatists to come to North America was the Pilgrims, the founders of the Plymouth
Settlement houses- The settlement movement was a reformist social movement, beginning in the 1880s and peaking around the 1920s in England
and the US, with a goal of getting the rich and poor in society to live more closely together in an interdependent community. Its main object was the
establishment of "settlement houses" in poor urban areas, in which volunteer middle-class "settlement workers" would live, hoping to share
knowledge and culture with, and alleviate the poverty of their low-income neighbors. The "settlement houses" provided services such as daycare,
education, and healthcare to improve the lives of the poor in these areas. In the US, by 1913 there were 413 settlements in 32 states. The term also
has a second, unrelated meaning in contemporary USA, referring to independent living programs targeted towards young people who "age out" of the
foster care system. The US Congress passed legislation in 1999, setting aside $140 million for independent living programs.
Seven Years’ War- "The Seven Years' War" was a world war that took place between 1754 and 1763 with the main conflict being in the seven year
period 1756-1763. It involved most of the great powers of the time and affected Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast,
India, and the Philippines. In the historiography of some countries, the war is alternatively named after combatants in the respective theaters: the
"French and Indian War" (North America, 1754–63); "Pomeranian War" (with Sweden and Prussia, 1757–62); "Third Carnatic War" (on the Indian
subcontinent, 1757–63); and "Third Silesian War" (with Prussia and Austria, 1756–63).
Seward’s Folly - Under the direction of Secretary of State William H. Seward, Alaska was purchased from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867. At first,
detractors called his purchase “Seward’s Folly” or even “Seward’s Icebox”. However, when oil was discovered, the bargain became one of the best
purchases since the Louisiana Purchase. Seward envisioned expanding the United States further, but only acquired Alaska
Shakers- The United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, known as the Shakers, is a religious sect originally thought to be a
development of the Religious Society of Friends. Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee, Shakers today are mostly known for their cultural
contributions (especially their style of music and furniture), and their model of equality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in
the 1780s.
Sharecroppers - After the Civil War, the agricultural system of the South changed. The plantations were broken up and land was rented out to tenant
farmers, many of whom were recently freed slaves. These farmers were called sharecroppers and received homes, barns, animals, tools, and seed in
exchange for a share of their crops.
Sharecropping- Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops
produced on the land. Sharecropping has a long history and there are a wide range of different situations and types of agreements that have used a
form of the system. Some are governed by tradition,and others by law. Legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the
Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, enshrined in the Shariah, occur widely.
Shay’s Rebellion - Daniel Shays led a group of farmers in western Massachusetts in rebellion in 1787. The farmers were in debt and feared
continued foreclosures of their farms. The federal government organized a military force and put down the rebellion. However, issues over “common
defense” helped shape the coming constitutional crisis.
Shay’s Rebellion- Shays' (or Shays's) Rebellion was an armed uprising that took place in central and western Massachusetts in 1786 and 1787. The
rebellion was named after Daniel Shays, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War and one of the rebel leaders. The rebellion started on August
29, 1786. It was precipitated by several factors: financial difficulties brought about by a post-war economic depression, a credit squeeze caused by a
lack of hard currency, and fiscally harsh government policies instituted in 1785 to solve the state's debt problems. Protesters, including many war
veterans, shut down county courts in the later months of 1786 to stop the judicial hearings for tax and debt collection. The protesters became
radicalized against the state government following the arrests of some of their leaders, and began to organize an armed force. A militia raised as a
private army defeated a Shaysite (rebel) attempt to seize the federal Springfield Armory in late January 1787, killing four and wounding 20. The
main Shaysite force was scattered on February 4, 1787, after a surprise attack on their camp in Petersham, Massachusetts. Scattered resistance
continued until June 1787, with the single most significant action being an incident in Sheffield in late February, where 30 rebels were wounded (one
mortally) in a skirmish with government troops.
Sherman Antitrust Act- The Sherman Antitrust Act (Sherman Act) is a landmark federal statute on United States competition law passed by
Congress in 1890. It prohibits certain business activities that federal government regulators deem to be anticompetitive, and requires the federal
government to investigate and pursue trusts, companies, and organizations suspected of being in violation. It was the first federal statute to limit
cartels and monopolies, and today still forms the basis for most antitrust litigation by the United States federal government. However, for the most
part, politicians were unwilling to refer to and enforce this law until Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency (1901–1909) and beyond.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act- The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was enacted on July 14, 1890 as a United States federal law. The Sherman Silver
Purchase Act did not authorize the free and unlimited coinage of silver that the Free Silver supporters wanted. However, it increased the amount of
silver the government was required to purchase on a recurrent monthly basis to 4.5 million ounces. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act had been
passed in response to the growing complaints of farmers' and miners' interests. Farmers had immense debts that could not be paid off due to deflation
caused by overproduction, and they urged the government to pass the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to boost the economy and cause
inflation, allowing them to pay their debts with cheaper dollars. Mining companies, meanwhile, had extracted vast quantities of silver from western
mines; the resulting oversupply drove down the price of their product, often to below the point at which the silver could be profitably extracted. They
hoped to enlist the government to artificially increase the demand for silver.
Sherman’s March to the Sea - In November 1864, General Sherman led Union troops from the recently destroyed city of Atlanta to Savannah,
Georgia, 300 miles away. As the Army traveled across Georgia, it destroyed everything in its path. Sherman captured Savannah in December 1864
and presented it to Lincoln as a Christmas present. This march was designed to demoralize the South. It effectively split the Confederacy in two.
Al Smith - In 1928, Alfred Smith, nicknamed the “Happy Warrior” was a popular New York Governor and the Democratic presidential nominee.
However, he resoundingly lost the election to Hoover. The main factors that resulted in his defeat were that he was the son of Irish immigrants,
wished to repeal prohibition, was associated with the corrupt Tammany Hall, and was the first Catholic to run for president.
Social criticism - During the late 1800s, social critics arose who spoke out against the widespread poverty around them in the midst of great
industrial wealth. Three important authors were Henry George, Henry Demarest Lloyd, and Thorstein Veblen who wrote about the gap between the
wealthy and the poor. George and Lloyd both argued the need to move away from monopolies in business.
Social Darwinism- Social Darwinism is generally understood to use the concepts of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest to justify social
policies which make no distinction between those able to support themselves and those unable to support themselves. Many such views stress
competition between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism; but the ideology has also motivated ideas of eugenics, scientific racism, imperialism,
fascism, Nazism and struggle between national or racial groups. Opponents of evolution theory have often maintained that social Darwinism is a
logical entailment of a belief in evolutionary theory, while biologists and historians maintain that it is rather a perversion of Charles Darwin's ideas.
While most scholars recognize historical links between Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, they also maintain that social Darwinism is
not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution and that using biological evolution as a justification for policies of inequality
amounts to committing the naturalistic fallacy.
Social gospel - The Social gospel movement, at its peak around 1910, was spurred by clergy such as Washington Gladden who argued that workers
should be treated equally with and by employers. It espoused the “law of brotherhood” which manifested itself in working towards the rights of
workers to organize labor unions, to demand less working hours, and to require factory inspections.
Social gospel- The Social Gospel movement is a Protestant Christian intellectual movement that was most prominent in the early 20th century United
States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as wealth perceived as
excessive, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, bad hygiene, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war.
Theologically, the Social Gospellers sought to operationalize the Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:10): "Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it
is in heaven." They typically were post-millennialist; that is, they believed the Second Coming could not happen until humankind rid itself of social
evils by human effort. Social Gospel leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the Progressive Movement and most were
theologically liberal, although they were typically conservative when it came to their views on social issues. Important leaders include Richard T.
Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch.
Social –justice movement- Social justice is also a concept that is used to describe the movement towards a socially just world, i.e., the Global Justice
Movement. In this context, social justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality, and can be defined as "the way in which human
rights are manifested in the everyday lives of people at every level of society". A number of movements are working to achieve social justice in
society. These movements are working towards the realization of a world where all members of a society, regardless of background or procedural
justice, have basic human rights and equal access to the benefits of their society.
Social Security Act - One of the most extensive laws ever enacted, the Social Security Act of 1935 created a system to help promote the welfare of
U.S. citizens. It was part of Roosevelt’s second New Deal. Social Security provides benefits, including a pension system for retirement, a system of
unemployment compensation, and assistance for the disabled. These benefits are subsidized by income tax withholdings.
Sojourner Truth - Sojourner Truth was a slave who escaped in 1827. As a Black abolitionist and a woman, she often met prejudice from antifeminist White abolitionists who also expected free Black people to be quiet members of the movement. She became an important spokesperson for
the abolitionist movement and was an influential bridge between that and the women’s rights movement.
Sons and Daughters of Liberty - As a reaction to the Stamp Act (1765), a patriotic group calling themselves the Sons and Daughters of Liberty
formed throughout the colonies and called for a boycott of British goods. Two of the more notable members of this group were Samuel Adams of
Massachusetts and Patrick Henry of Virginia.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)- The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) is an African-American civil rights
organization. SCLC was closely associated with its first president, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The SCLC had a large role in the American Civil
Rights Movement. On January 10 , 1957, following the Montgomery Bus Boycott victory and consultations with Bayard Rustin, Ella Baker, and
others, Dr. King invited about 60 black ministers and leaders to Ebenezer Church in Atlanta. Prior to this, however, Bayard Rustin (in New York
City), having conceived the idea of initiating such effort, first sought Rev. C. K. Steele to make the call and take the lead role. C. K. Steele declined,
but told him he would be glad to work right beside him if he sought Dr. King in Montgomery, for the role. Their goal was to form an organization to
coordinate and support nonviolent direct action as a method of desegregating bus systems across the South. In addition to Rustin and Baker, Rev.
Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham, Rev Joseph Lowery of Mobile, Rev Ralph Abernathy of Montgomery, Rev C.K. Steele of Tallahassee, all played
key roles in this meeting.
Spoils system - President Andrew Jackson felt federal offices should be given to loyal supporters. He also believed officeholders should serve for a
limited time to avoid bureaucracy. He implemented a “spoils system” (“to the victors belong the spoils”) where party loyalty was rewarded with
government jobs. An ill effect of this was that people were not given the jobs based on merit but instead based on loyalty.
Stamp Act Congress - In 1765, delegates from nine colonies met in New York City. In this Stamp Act Congress, they created a declaration
demanding to repeal of the Stamp Tax stating that it was taxation without representation. This tax was repealed in 1766. However, Parliament then
passed the Declaratory Act asserting Parliament’s right to make laws over the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”
Elizabeth Cady Stanton - Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a leader for women’s suffrage. She was integral in setting up the seneca falls Convention in
1848, the first women’s rights convention. Stanton was also the first president of the National Woman Suffrage Association.
John Steinbeck - John Steinbeck was a major American author of the 1930s. His novels detail a simpler, rural way of life. His Pulitzer Prize winning
work, The Grapes of Wrath (1939), told the story of “Dust Bowl” migrations from Oklahoma to the West, framed in the plight of Americans during
the Great Depression.
Specie circular- The Act was a reaction to the growing concerns about excessive speculations of land after the Indian removal, which was mostly
done with soft currency. The sale of public lands increased five times between 1834 and 1836. Speculators paid for these purchases with depreciating
paper money. While government law already demanded that land purchases be completed with specie or paper notes from specie-backed banks, a
large portion of buyers used paper money from state banks not backed by hard money.
Spectral evidence- Spectral evidence was testimony that the accused witch's spirit (i.e. spectre) appeared to the witness in a dream or vision (for
example, a black cat or wolf). The dream or vision was admitted as evidence. Thus, witnesses (who were often the accusers) would testify that
"Goody Proctor bit, pinched, and almost choked me," and it would be taken as evidence that the accused were responsible for the biting, pinching and
choking even though they were elsewhere at the time.
Spoils system - President Andrew Jackson felt federal offices should be given to loyal supporters. He also believed officeholders should serve for a
limited time to avoid bureaucracy. He implemented a “spoils system” (“to the victors belong the spoils”) where party loyalty was rewarded with
government jobs. An ill effect of this was that people were not given the jobs based on merit but instead based on loyalty.
Sputnik- Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was a 585 mm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennae
to broadcast radio pulses. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. It was visible all around the Earth and its
radio pulses detectable. The surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis, began the Space Age and triggered the Space Race, a part of
the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.
Stamp Act Congress - In 1765, delegates from nine colonies met in New York City. In this Stamp Act Congress, they created a declaration
demanding to repeal of the Stamp Tax stating that it was taxation without representation. This tax was repealed in 1766. However, Parliament then
passed the Declaratory Act asserting Parliament’s right to make laws over the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”
Stamp Act Congress- The Stamp Act Congress, or First Congress of the American Colonies, was a meeting held between October 7 and 25, 1765 in
New York City, consisting of representatives from some of the British colonies in North America; it was the first gathering of elected representatives
from several of the American colonies to devise a unified protest against new British taxation. Parliament had passed the Stamp Act, which required
the use of specially stamped paper for virtually all business in the colonies, and was coming into effect November 1.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton - Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a leader for women’s suffrage. She was integral in setting up the seneca falls Convention in
1848, the first women’s rights convention. Stanton was also the first president of the National Woman Suffrage Association.
John Steinbeck - John Steinbeck was a major American author of the 1930s. His novels detail a simpler, rural way of life. His Pulitzer Prize winning
work, The Grapes of Wrath (1939), told the story of “Dust Bowl” migrations from Oklahoma to the West, framed in the plight of Americans during
the Great Depression.
Strategic Arms Limitatons Talks(SALT)- The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two rounds of bilateral talks and corresponding
international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union—the Cold War superpowers—on the issue of armament control. The two
rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II. Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, Finland, in November 1969.[1] SALT I led to the
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries. Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United
States chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that year. The United States eventually
withdrew from SALT II in 1986.
Strategic Defense Initiative- The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983, to use
ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. The initiative focused on
strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization
(SDIO) was set up in 1984 within the United States Department of Defense to oversee the Strategic Defense Initiative.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)- The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) (pron.: /ˈsnɪk/) was one of the
organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. It emerged from a series of student meetings led by Ella Baker held at Shaw
University in April 1960. SNCC grew into a large organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support SNCC's work in
the South, allowing full-time SNCC workers to have a $10 per week salary. Many unpaid volunteers also worked with SNCC on projects in
Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Arkansas, and Maryland. SNCC played a major role in the sit-ins and freedom rides, a leading role in the 1963
March on Washington, Mississippi Freedom Summer, and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party over the next few years. SNCC's major
contribution was in its field work, organizing voter registration drives all over the South, especially in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.
Students for a Democratic Society- Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a student activist movement in the United States that was one of
the main representations of the New Left. The organization developed and expanded rapidly in the mid-1960s before dissolving at its last convention
in 1969. SDS has been an important influence on student organizing in the decades since its collapse. Participatory democracy, direct action,
radicalism, student power, shoestring budgets, and its organizational structure are all present in varying degrees in current American student activist
groups. Though various organizations have been formed in subsequent years as proposed national networks for left-wing student organizing, none
has approached the scale of SDS, and most have lasted a few years at best.
Suez crisis- The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, Suez War, or Second Arab-Israeli War was a diplomatic and military
confrontation in late 1956 between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France and Israel on the other, with the United States, the Soviet Union, and the
United Nations playing major roles in forcing Britain, France and Israel to withdraw
Sunbelt - This region consist of a broad band of states running across the South from Florida to Texas, extending west and north to include
California and the Pacific Northwest. Beginning in the 17’s this area has experienced rapid economic growth and major gains in population.
Supply – side economics – Advocates of supply-side economics claimed that tax cuts would stimulate the economy by giving individuals a greater
incentive to earn more money, which would lead to greater investment and eventually larger tax revenues at a lower rate. Critics replied that supplyside economics would only burden the economy with larger government deficits.
Taft-Hartley Act – This 1947 anti-union legislation outlawed the closed shop and secondary boycotts. It also authorized the president to seek
injunctions to prevent strikes that posed a threat to national security.
Tariff of Abominations – an 1828 protective tariff or tax on
It resulted in a substantial increase in duties that angered many southern free traders.
imports,
motivated
by
special
interest
groups.
Teapot Dome scandal – A 1924 scandal in which the Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall was convicted of accepting bribes in exchange for leasing
government-owned oil lands in Wyoming (Teapot Dome) and California (Elks Hill) to private oil businessmen.
Teller Amendment – In this amendment, sponsored by Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado, the United states pledged that it did not intend to
annex Cuba and that it would recognize Cuban independence from Spain after the Spanish – American War.
Temperance - One of the many reform movements in the nineteenth century, the Temperance Movement viewed alcoholic beverages as leading to
the evils of crime and poverty. At first, only heavy drinking was condemned. This moderation, or temperance, soon gave way to the desire for the
total prohibition of all alcohol. Soon after 1850, 13 states had put limits on or prohibited the sale of alcohol.
Temperance Movement – Temperance – moderation or abstention in the use of alcoholic beverages – attracted many advocates in the early
nineteenth century. Their crusade against alcohol, which grew out of the second Great Awakening, became a powerful social and political force.
Ten Percent Plan – Reconstruction plan proposed by President Abraham Lincoln as a quick way to readmit the former Confederate States. It called
for full pardon of all Southerners except Confederate leaders, and readmission to the Union for any states after 10 percent of its voters in the 1860
election signed a loyalty oath and the state abolished slavery.
Tenements - The exponentially increasing population of urban poor during the era of industrialization led to the construction of tenements--narrow,
four- or five- story buildings with few windows and limited electricity and plumbing. The poor, mostly ethnic minorities and immigrants, were
packed into these crowded, dirty apartments.
Tennessee Valley Authority – A new Deal effort at regional planning created by Congress in 1933, this agency built dams and power plants to the
Tennessee River. Its programs for flood control, soil conservation, and reforestation helped raise the standard of living for million in the Tennessee
River Valley.
Tet offensive – in February 1968, the Viet Cong launched a major offensive in the cities of South Vietnam. Although caught by surprise, American
and South Vietnam forces successfully quashed this attack, yet the Tet offensive was a blow to American public opinion and led President Johnson to
end the escalation of the war and seek a negotiated peace.
Thirteenth Amendment – Ratified in 1865, this amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude.
Townshend Acts - The Townshend Acts, named after the English Chancellor of the Exchequer, were enacted in 1767. They required the suspension
of the New York Assembly until it yielded to the Quartering Act. Further, they created duties on colonial imports such as lead, paint, and tea. The
acts accelerated colonial resistance to Great Britain.
Trail of Tears - The Supreme Court ruled that the Cherokees had a right to land given them in 1791. Jackson did not enforce these decisions. The
tribe had to sign a treaty in 1835 where they gave up their lands in exchange for territory in Arkansas, money, and transportation to the new land.
Their journey is called the Trail of Tears because of the 12,000 Cherokees who started on the thousand mile track, 4,000 died on the way.
Trail of Tears – In the winter of 1838-1839, the Cherokee were forced to evacuate their lands in Georgia and travel under military guard to presentday Oklahoma. Due to exposure and disease, roughly one-quarter of the 16,000 forced migrants died en route.
Transcendentalism - Transcendentalism was a spiritual movement that arose in the 1830s, challenging rationalism. Transcendentalists aimed to
achieve an inner, emotional understanding of God rather than a rational, institutionalized one. They believed truth and freedom were inborn. Among
the more prominent transcendentalists were the writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.
Transcendentalism – An American version of the romantic and idealist thought that emerged in Europe in the early nineteenth century, this literary
and philosophical movement held that individuals could rise above reality and ordinary understanding.
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo - The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican War and was signed on February 2, 1848. It granted the
United States possession of Texas above the Rio Grande, New Mexico, and California in exchange for $15 million. Further, the United States
assumed all monetary claims of U.S. citizens against the Mexican government.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – Signed in 1848, this treaty ended the Mexican – American War. Mexico relinquished its claims to Texas and ceded
an additional 500,000 square miles to the United States for $15 million.
Treaty of Paris (1783) - The Treaty of Paris officially ended the American Revolutionary War for independence. Great Britain acknowledged
America’s independence and established its borders as spanning from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River and from Florida to Canada. According to
the terms of the treaty, Florida was given back to Spain.
Treaty of Paris – Signed by the United States and Spain in December 1898, this treaty ended the Spanish – American War. Under its terms, Spain
reorganized Cuba’s independence and assumed the Cuban debt; it also ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States. At the insistence of the
U.S. representatives, Spain also ceded the Philippines. the senate ratified the treaty on February 6, 1899.
Treaty of Tordesillas – Treaty negotiated by the pope in 1494 to resolve competing land claims of Spain and Portugal in the New World. It divided
the world along a north – south line in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, granting to Spain all lands west of the line and to Portugal lands east of the
line.
Triangular Trade - In what is called triangular trade, New England shipped rum to Africa to be traded for slaves. The slaves were then transported
to the West Indies and traded for goods, including molasses. The molasses was then used to make rum in the colonies. This trade pattern served to
eventually increase the number of slaves brought to the Americas.
Truman Doctrine – in 1947, President Truman asked congress for money to aid Greek and Turkish governments that were then threatened by
communist rebels. Arguing for the appropriations, Truman asserted his doctrine that the United States was committed to support free people
everywhere who were resisting subjugation by communist attack or rebellion.
Truck Lines – Four major railroad networks that emerged after the Civil War to connect the eastern seaports to the Great Lakes and western rivers.
They reflected the growing integration of transportation across the country that helped spur large – scale industrialization.
Trust – A business – management device designed to centralize and make more efficient the management of diverse and far – flung business
operations. It allowed stockholders to exchange their stock certificates for trust certificates, on which dividends were paid. John D. Rockefeller
organized the first major trust, the Standard Oil Trust, in 1882.
Turner’s Thesis – Put forth by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in his 1893 paper, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, this
thesis asserted that the existence of a frontier and its settlement had shaped American character; given rise to individualism independence, and self
confidence; and fostered the American spirit of invention and adaptation. Later historians, especially a group of “new Western historians”, modified
the thesis by pointing out the environmental and other consequences of frontier settlement, the role of the federal government in peopling the arid
West, and the clash of the races and cultures that took place on the frontier.
United Nations (UN) - Fifty-one countries founded the United Nations on October 24, 1945. Its central mission was to preserve peace and global
stability through international cooperation and collective security. Still in operation today, the UN now claims 189 countries as members.
Underground Railroad - The Underground Railroad was used by abolitionists to help runaway slaves escape to freedom. It consisted of hiding
places that led the escaping slaves north with the assistance of abolitionists such as Harriet Tubman. The purpose of this network was to foil
reinforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act. The network helped escaped slaves reach freedom in the North and in Canada.
Underground Railroad – A network of safe houses organized by abolitionists to aid slaves in their attempt to escape slavery in the North or Canada.
Underwood Tariff Act – An early accomplishment of the Wilson administration, this law reduced that tariff rates of the Payne-Aldrich law of 1909
by about 15 percent. It also levied a graduated income tax to make up for the lost revenue.
Undocumented aliens – Once diversely called “wetbacks”, undocumented aliens are illegal immigrants, mainly from Mexico and Central America.
Unilateralism – A national policy of acting alone without consulting others.
Utopianism – Between the 1830’s and 1850’s, hopes for societal perfection (utopia) were widespread among evangelical Christians as well as
secular humanists. These hopes found expression in various communities and spiritual movements.
Vertical integration – a form of business organization in which a single firms owns and controls the entire process of production, from the
procurement of raw materials to the manufacture and sale of the finished product. In the 1880’s and 1890’s, many important companies, including
Carnegie Steel and Standard Oil, were vertically integrated.
Vesey conspiracy – A plot to burn Charleston, South Carolina, and thereby initiate a general slave revolt, led by a free African American, Denmark
Vesey, in 1822. The conspirators were betrayed before the plan was carried out, and Vesey and 34 others were hung.
Virginia Plan – Offered by James Madison and the Virginia delegation at the Constitutional Convention, this proposal called for a new government
with a strong executive office and two houses of congress, each with representation proportional to a state’s population. Madison’s plan also
recommended giving the national government veto power over bills passed by the state legislators. Smaller states countered with the New Jersey Plan
that gave each state equal representation in Congress.
Virtual Representation – Notion that although colonists had not elected members to parliament, they were nonetheless represented by it. Espoused
by British leaders, this claim countered colonists’ argument that they had no voice in Parliament and therefore were being taxed without proper
representation.
Voting Rights Act of 1965 - The Voting Rights Act guaranteed all Americans the right to vote. It allowed the federal government to intervene in
election in order to ensure that minorities could vote. It restricted literacy and character tests in specific cases. Because of this and other acts, Black
voters were able to register en masse and become significant in political affairs.
Voting Rights Act of 1965 – The 1965 Voting Rights Act effectively banned literacy tests for voting rights and provided for federal registrars to
assure the franchise to minority voters. Within a few years, a majority of African Americans had become registered voters in the southern states.
Wade – David Bill – In 1864, Congress passed the Wade – Davis Bill to counter Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan for Reconstruction. The bill required
that a majority of a former confederate state’s white male population take a loyalty oath and guarantee equality for African Americans. President
Lincoln pocket – vetoed the bill.
Wagner Act – The 1935 Wagner Act, formally known as the National Labor Relations Act, created the National Labor Relations Board to supervise
union elections and designate winning unions as official bargaining agents. The board could also issue cease and desist orders to employers who dealt
unfairly with their workers.
War Hawks – Congressional leaders who, in 1811 and 1812, called for war against Britain to defend the national honor and force Britain to respect
America’s maritime rights.
War Industries Board – An example of the many boards and commissions created during the World War I, this government agency oversaw the
production of all American factories. It determined priorities, allocated raw materials, and fixed prices it told manufactures what they could and could
not produce.
War of 1812 – War between Britain and the United States. U.S. justification for war included British violations of American maritime rights,
impressments of seamen, provocation of the Indians, and defense of national honor.
War on Poverty - President Lyndon B. Johnson declared “war on poverty” upon taking office after Kennedy’s assassination. He pushed forward the
Economic Opportunity Bill which created Head Start, the Job Corps, work-study for college students, grants to farmers and businesses, the
Community Action Program, and the Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA). The “war on poverty” was part of Johnson’s Great Society.
War on Poverty – Lyndon Johnson declared war on poverty in his 1964 State of the Union address. A new Office of Economic Opportunity oversaw
a variety of programs to help the poor, including the Job Corps and Head Start.
War on Terrorism – Initiated by the George W. Bus after the attacks of September 11, 2001, the broadly defined war on terrorism aimed to weed
out terrorist operatives and their supporters throughout the world.
War Production Board - Created in 1942, the War Production Board oversaw the production of the thousands of planes, tanks, artillery pieces, and
munitions that Franklin D. Roosevelt requested once the United States entered World War II. The board allocated scarce resources and shifted
domestic production from civilian to military goods.
Earl Warren - Earl Warren served as chief justice of the Supreme Court from 1953 to 1969. During this time, the liberal Warren Court made a
number of important decisions, primarily in the realm of civil rights. One of the most important contributions of the Warren Court was the 1954
decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.
Watergate Scandal – A break in at the Democratic National Committee offices in the Watergate complex in Washington was carried out under the
direction of the White House employees. Disclosure of the White House involvement in the break in and subsequent cover up forced President Nixon
to resign in 1974 to avoid impeachment.
Watts Race Riot - The Watts Riot of 1965 occurred in an African American ghetto of Los Angeles and left more than 30 dead and 1,000 wounded.
The riots lasted for a week and were the first of hundreds of race riots that occurred during that time period. These riots followed slow progress in the
civil rights legislation, which caused frustration and disillusionment.
Weapons of Mass Destruction – Biological, chemical and nuclear weapons capable of widespread destruction.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty – This 1842 agreement with the Britain resolved the boundary dispute between Maine and New Brunswick, Canada,
setting the northeastern U.S. border.
Wheeler-Howard Act - The Wheeler-Howard Act, also known as the Indian Reorganization Act, was passed on June 18, 1934. It is significant
because U.S. policy became one of self-determination rather than assimilation for Native Americans. One of the most important effects of this act
was to allow the tribes to create their own government on the reservations.
Whig Party - Henry Clay and Daniel Webster created the Whig Party in reaction to Andrew Jackson. They wanted protective tariffs, rechartering of
the national Bank, and a strong central government. Their candidate, William Henry Harrison, died shortly after taking office. His successor, John
Tyler, did not follow the principles of the party. The party disappeared after the 1856 election.
Whigs – In mid – eighteenth century Britain, the Whigs were a political faction that dominated Parliament. Generally they were opposed to royal
influence in government and wanted to increase the control and influence of Parliament. In America, a Whig party – named for the British Whigs
who opposed the king in th elate seventeenth century – coalesced in the 1830’s around the opposition to Andrew Jackson. In general, the American
Whigs supported federal power and internal improvements but not territorial expansion. The Whig party collapsed in the 1850’s.
Whiskey Rebellion - In 1791, Alexander Hamilton pushed a high excise tax on whiskey as part of his Federalist economic policy. In July 1794,
violence broke out in western Pennsylvania, the area most hurt by the tax. In a show of national strength, George Washington himself led a force of
militiamen to crush the Whiskey Rebellion.
Whiskey Rebellion – Protests in 1794 by western Pennsylvania farmers resisting payment of a federal tax on whiskey, The uprising was forcibly
suppressed when President George Washington called an army of 15,000 troops to the area, where they encountered almost no resistance.
Roger Williams - Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. He was a Puritan minister who believed in separation of church and state. Rhode
Island became a haven for all religions and was the first colony to guarantee all of its inhabitants’ religious freedom.
Wilmot Proviso – In 1846, shortly after the outbreak of the Mexican – American War, congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced this
controversial amendment stating that any lands won from Mexico would be closed to slavery.
John Winthrop - John Winthrop was a wealthy Puritan who became the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He is known for his speech
“A model of Christian charity” where he put forth the idea that the Puritans were creating a “city upon a hill.” He meant that they were establishing a
godly community that all people could admire.
Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Founded by Frances E. Willard, this organized campaigned to end drunkenness and the social ills that
accompanied it. The largest women’s organization in the country, by 1889 it had 10,000 branches and 500,000 members. The WCTU illustrated the
large role women played in politics and reform long before the won the right to vote.
Women’s Suffrage - Beginning in the nineteenth century, women made some strides toward equality with men as they gained more financial
independence. However, it was not until women like Alice Paul started taking control of the suffrage movement that women received a
Constitutional Amendment giving them the right to vote. The Nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920.
Women’s Trade Union League – Founded in 11903, this group worked to organize women into trade unions. It also lobbied for laws to safeguard
female workers and backed several successful strikes, especially in the garment industry. It accepted all women who worked, regardless of skill, and
while it never attracted many members, its leaders were influential enough to give the union considerable power.
Works Progress Administration (WPA) - Much of the $5 billion allocated by the Emergency Relief Allocation Act of 1935 went to the creation of
the Works Progress Administration. Over eight years, the WPA provided work for the unemployed, based on their abilities, from industrial engineers
to authors and artists. Partially owing to WPA efforts, unemployment fell by over five percent between 1935 and 1937.
Works Progress Administration – Congress created this New Deal agency in 1935 to provide work relief for the unemployed. Federal works
projects included buildings roads, bridges, and schools; the WPA also funded projects for artists, writers, and young people. It eventually spent $11
billon on projects and provided employment for 8.5 million people.
Worcester v. Georgia (1832) - In the case of Worcester v. Georgia (1832), Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokee were a “domestic
dependent nation” within Georgia and thus deserved protection from harassment. A vehement Indian hater and eager to secure Native American land
for U.S. settlement, Andrew Jackson refused to abide by the decision. The Cherokee removal continued unabated.
Wounded Knee Massacre – In December 1890, troopers of the Seventh Cavalry, under orders to stop the Ghost Dance religion among the Sioux,
took Chief Big foot and his followers to camp and wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. It is uncertain who fired the first shot, but the violence
ensued and approximately two hundred Native American men, women, and children were killed.
Malcolm X - A major advocate of Black Power, Malcolm X helped lead the Nation of Islam to national prominence. He was a voice for Black
militancy and the need to fight against White rule, using violent tactics if necessary. However, he was assassinated in 1965 after a well-publicized
break with the Nation of Islam over, among other things, his newfound dedication to cross-cultural unity.
XYZ Affair – A diplomatic incident in which American peace commissioners sent to France by President John Adams in 1797 were insulted with
bribe demands from their French counterparts, dubbed X, Y, and Z, in American newspapers. The incident heightened war fever against France
Yalta Conference – Yalta, a city in Russian Crimea, hosted this wartime conference of the allies in Feb 1945 in which the allies agreed to final plans
for the defeat of Germany and the terms of its occupation. The Soviets agreed to allow free elections in Poland, but the elections were never held.
Yellow-dog contracts - Yellow-dog contracts were used by employers to intimidate their employees not join labor unions. They required workers to
stay out of unions or lose their jobs. This was not regulated until 1932 where the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Junction forbade employers to punish
workers who did not honor their yellow-dog contracts.
Yellow Journalism - Yellow Journalism refers to the exaggerated and sensationalized stories about Spanish military atrocities against Cuban rebels
that the New York World and New York Journal, among other newspapers, published in the period leading up to the Spanish-American War in 1898.
Yellow journalism swayed American public opinion in favor of war against Spain.
Yellow Journalism – In order to sell newspapers to the public before and during the Spanish – American War, publishers William Randolph Hearst
and Joseph Pulitzer engaged in blatant sensationalization of the news, which became known as “yellow journalism”. Although it did not cause the
war with Spain, it helped turn the U.S. public opinion against Spain’s actions in Cuba.
Yeoman – Southern small landowners who owned no slaves, and who lived primarily in the foothills of the Appalachian and Ozark Mountains.
These farmers were self – reliant and grew mixed crops, although they usually did not produce a substantial amount to be sold on the market.
Young America – In the early 1840’s and early 1850’s, many public figures (especially younger member of the Democratic Party) used this term to
describe a movement that advocated territorial expansion and industrial growth in the name of patriotism.
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