Anatomy & Physiology
An Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter 1
pp. 2-27
Characteristics of Living Organisms
1) Responsiveness: respond to changes in the
environment
•
•
2)
3)
4)
5)
irritability – immediate environment
adaptability – over a long period
Growth – in size or # of cells
Reproduction
Movement – internal and external
Metabolism: series of complex chemical
reactions that provide energy for all the other
characteristics
Anatomy vs. Physiology
Anatomy: study of
internal and external
structures and their
relationships
Physiology: study of
how living
organisms perform
their vital functions
What is the Anatomy and Physiology of an automobile?
Anatomy
Two divisions:
1) Microscopic – structures that cannot be seen without
magnification
• Cytology: study of individual cells
• Histology: study of tissues, or groups of specialized cells working
together
2) Macroscopic (Gross) – structures that are visible to
the naked eye
• Surface anatomy: study of general form and superficial markings
• Regional anatomy: study of all the superficial and internal features
in a specific region of the body
Physiology
• Many different specialties (human, cell,
individual organs)
• Pathological Physiology (Pathology):
study of the effects of diseases on
organ system functions
Levels of Organization
Have you ever heard of
“nesting dolls?”
Levels of Organization
Question: Why should we study
activity at the cellular level?
Answer: Damage at any of the levels
can affect those levels above
and/or below. They are
interconnected.
Example: Genetic Heart Defect
Homeostasis
Definition: existence of a stable internal
environment
NECESSARY FOR SURVIVAL!!
Homeostatic Regulation: physiological
adjustments systems make to maintain
homeostasis
Question: What happens when
homeostatic regulation breaks
down?
Answer: DISEASE
Process of Homeostatic Regulation
Step 1: Receptor (ex. nerve ending)
responds to a stimulus and sends info to
control center
Step 2: Control center (ex. brain)
processes the information from the
receptor and coordinates response
Step 3: Effector (ex. gland) responds to
the commands of the control center to
oppose or enhance the stimulus
Example: Regulating Room Temperature
Weymouth High School
Feedback: A Method of
Homeostatic Regulation
Negative feedback: a variation outside normal limits
(set point) triggers an automatic response that
corrects the situation (within normal limits) – MOST
COMMON IN BODY
Example: Thermoregulation, glucose regulation
(Teeter-totter)
Positive feedback: initial stimulus produces a
response that reinforces the stimulus – ONLY A FEW
EXAMPLES IN BODY
Example: Blood clotting, Birth (Dominos)
Anatomical Landmarks
• Helps in remembering the names of
multiple structures
• Provides the location for multiple
structures
Anatomical Landmarks
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Position: human form standing
with hands at sides and the palms facing
forward
Supine: lying face up in the anatomical
position
Prone: lying face down in the
anatomical position
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Directions
Anterior/Ventral: the front or belly side of
the body
Posterior/Dorsal: the back of the human
body
Remember, LEFT and RIGHT refer to the
body of the subject and not the observer.
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Directions
Cranial/Cephalic: toward the head
Caudal: toward the tailbone (coccyx)
Superior: above, or toward the head
Inferior: below, or toward the feet
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Directions
Medial: toward the center of the body
Lateral: away from the center of the body
Proximal: toward the attached base
(typically used for limbs)
Distal: away from the attached base
(typically used for limbs)
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Directions
Superficial: at or near the body surface
Deep: farther from the body surface
Anatomical Directions
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Regions
Body is divided into 4 regions by lines that
intersect at the bellybutton (umbilicus)
1)
2)
3)
4)
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Clinicians use even more specific distinctions,
including 9 abdominopelvic regions. (Thank
goodness!)
Anatomical Regions
The Language of Anatomy
Planes and Sections
Definition: slice through a 3-dimensional object divides the body
into sections (important in non-invasive diagnostic testing
procedures)
Transverse: perpendicular to the head-foot axis of the body
(parallel to the floor while standing; divides the body into
superior and inferior sections
Frontal/Coronal: parallel to the head-foot axis and extends side
to side; divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
Sagittal: parallel to the head-foot axis and extends front to
back; divides the body into left and right sections
**Mid-sagittal refers to a midline division creating
equal left and right halves.**
Anatomical Planes
Planes and Sections
Which planes create these “slices”?
The Language of Anatomy
Body Cavities
Functions:
1) Protect delicate organs, by cushioning them
during movement (fluid sacs)
2) Permit for size/shape changes of organs
without disrupting the activities of
surrounding organs
Dorsal: surrounds the brain and spinal cord
Ventral: much larger, surrounds organs of the
respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems (viscera)
The Language of Anatomy
Dorsal Cavity in Detail
1) Cranial Cavity (Skull)
2) Spinal Cavity (Spine)
The Language of Anatomy
Ventral Body Cavity in Detail
1) Thoracic Cavity
A. Pericardial Cavity (heart)
B. Two Pleural Cavities (lungs)
2) Abdominopelvic Cavity
(Peritoneal Cavity)
A. Abdominal Cavity (stomach, liver)
B. Pelvic Cavity (reproductive organs)
Body Cavities
Introduction to Organ
Systems
Integumentary
• Forms the external
body covering
• Protects deeper tissue
from injury
• Synthesizes vitamin D
• Location of cutaneous
nerve receptors and
glands
• Major Components:
Skin, Hair, Nails
Skeletal
• Protects and supports
body organs
• Provides muscle
attachment for
movement
• Site of blood cell
formation
• Stores minerals
• Major Components:
Bone, Cartilage, and
Ligaments
Muscular
• Allows locomotion
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat
• Major Components:
Muscles and Tendons
Nervous
• Fast-acting control
system
• Responds to internal and
external changes (stimuli)
• Directs activities of other
organ systems by
activating muscles and
glands
• Major Components: Brain,
Spinal Cord, and
Peripheral Nerves
Endocrine
• Slow-acting control
system
• Secretes regulatory
hormones which
direct activities of
other organ systems
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Metabolism
• Major Components:
Glands, Kidneys,
Pancreas, Gonads
Cardiovascular
• Transports materials in
body via blood pumped
by heart including:
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Wastes
• Major Components:
Heart, Blood Vessels,
Blood
Lymphatic
• Returns fluids to
blood vessels
• Disposes of debris
• Involved in immunity
• Major components:
Tonsils, Lymph
Vessels, Lymph
Nodes, Spleen and
Thymus
Respiratory
• Keeps blood
supplied with
oxygen
• Removes
carbon dioxide
• Major
Components:
Air
passageways,
Lungs
Digestive
• Breaks down food
• Allows for nutrient
absorption into
blood
• Eliminates
indigestible
material
• Major Components:
Food passageways,
Stomach,
Intestines, Liver,
Pancreas
Urinary
• Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes
• Maintains acid –
base balance
• Regulation of
water and
electrolytes
• Major
Components:
Kidneys, Bladder,
Urine
passageways
Reproductive
• Production of
sex cells and
sex hormones
• Production
of offspring
• Major
Components:
Testes and
Penis
(Male)/Ovaries,
Uterus, Vagina
(Female)
Interrelatedness
of Organ Systems
Just as one level of
organization is dependent
on another, organs of
different systems rely on
the function of the others!
Essential Requirements
for Survival
1) Nutrients
• Chemicals for energy and cell building
• Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
2) Oxygen
• Required for chemical reactions
3) Water (60-80% of body weight)
4) Stable body temperature
5) Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Radiological Procedures
X-ray: high-energy radiation is sent through
body tissues to a photographic plate
• “radiodense” tissues such as bone appear white, while
air appears black
Barium-contrast: dense liquid is used to see
tissues that are normally difficult to see with
x-ray, such as stomach and intestine
X-ray
X-ray
Barium-Contrast
Radiological Procedures
CAT Scan: x-ray source rotates around the body to
show three-dimensional relationships between body
tissues
MRI: body is surrounded by a magnetic field, atoms of
different tissues release different amounts of energy
forming an image; more detailed than a CAT Scan
Ultrasound: sound waves are sent through the skin, the
echoes that are reflected by internal structures form
an image
CT Scan
CT Scan
CT Scan
PET Scan
MRI
MRI
MRI
MRI
Ultrasound
Ultrasound