Sports Psych Review
9.1 Theories of Motivation
• Self Efficacy (Bandura)
– Beliefs in own competence
– Influenced by 4 factors
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Previous experience
Modelling
Verbal persuasion, encouragement
Interpretation of emo/physio arousal
Self Efficacy Research
• Hochstetler et al (1985)
– 40 female cyclists
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Grp 1: video of struggles, then task
Grp 2: video of success, then same task
Grp 1 found task much harder
Evidence for impact of modeling
Self Efficacy Research (cont.)
• Feltz et al (1989)
– Field study, hockey team
– S-E correlated to team performance and increases
as season progresses
– Evidence for previous experience
• Bandura and Banfield (1991)
– Belief in EFFORT more than talent develops high SE
Eval Self Efficacy
strengths
• Successfully applied
• Empirically studied
• Strong predictor of
performance
limits
• Must be combined with
other factors
• Some studies are only
correlational
Competence Motivation Theory
• Harter (1978)
– Feelings of COMPETENCE are the primary factors
in motivation
– “Perceived Competence” predicts:
• Cognitive outcomes (S-E, Control)
• Affective outcomes (enjoy, anxiety)
• Behavioral outcomes (performance)
Competence Motivation Theory
• Challenging/realistic goals increase motivation
• Unsuccessful attempts result in perceived
failure, decrease motivation
• Positive feedback helps raise perceived
competence
Competence Motivation Research
• Ommundsen et al (1991)
– 223 Norwegian male soccer players age 14-16
interviewed
– Low competence, low peer popularity = low
persistence, low connection to team and low
enjoyment
– All resulted in low motivation
9.2 Role of Goal Setting
• 3 types of goals
– Outcome goals (ego goals): focus on winning
– Performance goals (task goals): focus on individual
performance
– Process goals: focus on skill improvement
Achievement Goal Theory
• Nichols (1984)
– One’s internal sense of ability (task vs ego) is the
central motivating factor
– Task: skill mastery, high intrinsic motivation
– Ego: win, low intrinsic motivation, higher
stress/pressure and social comparison
Goal Setting Research
• Filby et al (1999)
– Field experiment, soccer for 5 weeks
– Grp 1: no goals
– Grp 2: outcome goals
– Grp 3: process goals
– Grp 4: outcome and process goals
– Grp 5: outcome, performance and process goals
– Results: grps 4 and 5 outperformed others
• Ntoumanis et al (1999)
– Task: better problem solvers, coping strategies and
social support
– Ego: emotion focused problem solvers, negative
feelings, increased concern over personal mistakes
4 Reasons Why Goal Work
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1. Goals direct attention
2. Goals help energize
3. Goals affect persistence
4. Goals lead to the discovery of strategies of
achievement
9.3 Arousal, Anxiety and Performance
• Gould (2000)
– Athletic performance reflects close coordination
between mind and body
– Arousal: physio activity
– Anxiety: negative emotional state
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Cognitive: negative thoughts
Somatic: body’s stress reaction
State: apprehension, nervousness
Trait: perceived threat when none exists
The Inverted U Theory
• Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)
Inverted U Research
• Oxendine (1970)
– Nature of skill affects optimal arousal levels
• Klavora (1998)
– 95 male HS basketball players
– Pregame anxiety measured by test
– Results: moderate pregame anxiety was better
than high/low anxiety for optimal performance
• (Fazey & Hardy, 1988) Catastrophe Model
• When anxiety level exceeds the optimal level
drop in performance is dramatic, not gradual
Eval Inverted U
strengths
• Successful application in
sports
• Predictive value
• Can help explain poor
performance
limits
• No clear explanation as to
why this happens
• Too general
• Does not account for
individual factors
• Theory can clearly explain
the origin of arousal
• Does not account for S-E
and other cognitive factors
Optimal Arousal Theory (IZOF)
• Hanin (1997): Top athletes have own,
individual zone of optimal anxiety (IZOF)
• IZOF is unique to all athletes
• When arousal level and cognitive anxiety level
meet result is peak performance
IZOF Research
• Raglin & Morris ((1994)
– College V-ball players reached IZOF vs high quality
opponents but not vs low quality opponents
– Evidence for upsets in competition
• Amnesi (1998)
– 3 elite tennis players, established IZOF for each
and taught anxiety reduction techniques
– All showed increased performance
Eval Optimal Arousal (IZOF)
Strengths
• Successfully applied in
sports
• Empirically supported
• Numerous examples at all
levels of sport
limits
• Very time consuming to
establish IZOF
• IZOF is a moving target
• IZOF is dependent on
numerous uncontrolled
variables
• Cannot explain why IZOF is
not necessary at all times
9. 4 Techniques for Skill Development
in Sport
Massed Practice
• Continuous
• Used to train “discrete
tasks”: free throw, golf
swing etc…
• Goal: accurate and
automatic performance
under pressure
• Variable practice is a
combination of both; helps
increase motivation
Distributed Practice
• Interval
• Used to train “continuous
tasks”: swimming, cycling
etc…
• Utilizes modeling, repetition
and feedback
Massed vs Distributed Research
Singer (1965)
• Massed vs Distributed
practice in basketball
• Grp 1: massed (80 shots)
• Grp 2: distributed (4 x 20
shots, 5 min rest)
• Grp 3:distributed (4 x 20
shots, 24 hr rest)
• 2 tests over 4 days
• Results: practice with rest
shows best results
Lee & Genovese (1988)
• Meta analysis of 116 studies
• Distributed found to be
BETTER than massed for
motor skills in both
MASTERY of skill and
PERFORMANCE
Imagery
The brain uses the same neural mechanisms to imagine movements as it does with
actual movements.
• Monroe et al (2000)
– Where used: precompetition
– When used: during
practice and competition
– Why used: promote
confidence and S-E
– What is used: positive
images, emotions
• Martin et al (1999)
– Applied Imagery Model
• Cognitive specific:
imagine the skill
• Cognitive general:
imagine strategy
• Motivational specific:
enhancing motivation
• Motivational arousal:
regulating stress
• Motivational general
mastery: staying focused
Imagery (cont.)
• Moritz et al (1996)
– Studied the relationship
between imagery &
confidence
– Elite athletes use
imagery related to
mastery and emotion
– Correlational study
• Callow & Hardy (2001)
– 123 female netball
players
– Studied the relationship
between imagery &
confidence
– Low skilled players:
motivational general
mastery imagery
– High skilled: goal
achievement imagery
Eval Imagery
strengths
• Powerful technique
• Empirically demonstrated
• Supported by neuroimaging
studies
• Relates to S-E and
performance
Limits
• Not effective for all
• Low confidence = imagined
failure
• Validity issues with self
reporting results
9.5 Role of Coaches
• Horn & Lox (1993) Self-fulfilling Prophecy
– Coach forms expectations
– Expectations affect treatment of athlete
– Different treatment influences perceptions of
competence
– Athlete’s behavior\performance conforms to
expectations
Coaching Behavior and Expectations
• Weinberg & Gould (2007)
– Categories based on high or low expectations
• Frequency/quality of coach-athlete interaction: more
given to “best” players
• Quantity/quality of instruction: better teaching for
“best” players
• Type/frequency of feedback: better, more timely for
“best” players
Role of Coaches Research
Chase et al (1997) Coaches’ efficacy
beliefs and team performance
• 4 D-III women’s b-ball
coaches, questionnaire
– High efficacy expectations
were reinforced by good
preparation
– Efficacy expectations were
linked to skills
– Coaches should focus on selfimprovement and effort
(controllable factors)
Alfermann et al (2005) Coaches’
influence on skill development
• How do leadership styles
(Democratic vs Autocratic) and
feedback impact skills?
• Study 1: 119 swimmers,
questionnaires, 1 year
– D = mastery climate, positive
relationship to performance
• Study 2: 212 youth athletes
(individual and team),
questionnaires
– Team sports require more
group oriented behavior from
coach
9.6 Team Cohesion and Performance
• 4 factors of cohesion
– 1. Individual factors: player identification with
team
– 2. Team factors: communication, goals, efficacy
– 3. Leadership factors: culture, collective
responsibility
– 4. Environmental Factors: size of group, pressure
to perform
Cohesion Research
Carron et al (1985) Group
Environment Questionnaire (GEQ)
Carron et al (2002) Relationship
between cohesion and performance
• GEQ measures:
• Task cohesion: commitment
to work together to achieve
specific goals
• Social cohesion: like and
enjoy playing together and
supporting each other
• 294 Canadian b-ball and
soccer players given the
GEQ
– Results: strong relationship
between TASK cohesion and
success
– TASK cohesion helps raise
team efficacy, enhancing
performance
9.7 Aids/Barriers to Cohesion
Aids
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Team Building, focus on team spirit
and identity, player satisfaction
Focus on performance and process
goals for collective efficacy: common
goals, ownership
Democratic leadership style: open
and approachable with players
Clear communication: consistent
communication on goals, roles and
feedback
Barriers
• Weinberg & Gould (2008)
– Personality clashes
– Conflict between task and
social roles
– Communication breakdown
– Power struggle
– Frequent turnover of group
members
– Disconnect on goals
9.8 Response to Stress/Injury
• Stress process in sport
– Stressors: overtraining, injury, bad grades,
coach/team drama, external expectations,
competition
– Stress Response: Arousal (somatic and
psychological), anxiety, cognitive appraisal
– Coping: Emotion vs Problem Focused coping
strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)
Two Approaches to Stress
Holmes & Rahe (1967) Major Life
Events
Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
Cognitive Appraisal
• Rating scale for life event
(job change, death of a
loved one, divorce etc…)
• Adapted for use in sports
(problems with coach or
teammate etc…)
• Athlete’s perception to
situation in relation to
coping resources is key to
behavior
– Imbalance between own
abilities and demands results
in negative feelings; balance
results in positive feelings
Athlete Response to Stress
• Gould (1993) Coping strategies in elite
athletes to manage stress
– Olympic wrestlers and National Champ figure
skaters, questionnaires about managing stress
– Results found 4 dimensions of coping themes:
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1. Thought control: self talk, positive thinking
2. Attention control: concentration cues
3. Behavioral control: fixed routines
4. Emotional control: relaxation and visualization
Two Hypotheses on Role of Stress and
Injury
• 1. Stress disrupts attention
– Poor attention leads to increased risk of injury
• 2. Stress produce increased muscle tension
and reduces coordination
– Reduced coordination leads to higher risk of injury
– Anderson & Williams (1999): negative life event
stressors were the only significant predictor of
injury in 196 college athletes
Cognitive Appraisal Model
(Wiese, Bjornstal, 1998)
• Primary Appraisal: what is at stake, challenge,
threat, benefit or loss
• Secondary Appraisal: how can you cope,
options available
Athlete Response to Chronic Injury
• Shuer et al (1997)
– Aim: psych and coping responses to chronic injury
– 280 elite college athletes, measured coping
responses, intrusive thoughts and avoidance
coping
– Results: chronically injured athletes scored highest
on avoidance coping with females scoring higher
than males, indicating high rates of denial
9.1 Reasons for Using Drugs in Sport
• Goldman (1984)
– Asked 198 elite athletes if they would take a
“magic drug” that would allow them to win gold
w/out being caught
– 98% said yes; 52% said yes even if it would kill
them in 5 years
• Physical reasons
– Enhance performance
– Cope with pain/taining
– Control wieght
– Develop strength/stamina
• Psychological reasons
– Control emotions
– Control stress response
– Build self confidence
– Gain mental edge
• Social reasons
– Pressure from coaches/parents to perform
– Peer pressure and need for acceptance
– Financial concerns—scholarships, prize money,
bonuses
Research on Drug Use
Anshel (1991)
• Survey of 126 US athletes
from 9 sports
• 64% aware of use on team
• 43% knew drugs were to
enhance performance
• Drugs taken for physical &
psych reasons
Wadler & Hainline (1989)
• Athletes may be more likely
to experiment w/drugs due
to 5 factors
• 1. pressure to reach next
level
• 2. careers are finite
• 3. weight is always an issue
• 4. injury is always an issue
• 5. external pressure always
exists
• Smith et al (2010)
• Narrative based case study of 11 Aussie athletes
– Said use of drugs was cheating, attitudes were shaped
by:
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1. legality of drug
2. drug’s impact on performance
3. early sporting experience/culture
4. commercial pressures
5. Individual desire to use
6. existing use of drug within the sport
Game Theory
• Why would rational athletes decide to take
drugs?
• “Prisoner’s Dilemma”
Applied Game Theory: Tour De France
• Shermer (2008)
– Payoff is high, motivation to use drugs increases
– Some cyclists take drugs, win and aren’t caught
– Other cyclists see this and follow suit
– Penalties are stiff so a “code of silence” reigns
– Climate is such that if you don’t use, you can’t
even compete
– Riis, Ulrich, Contador, Landis, Armstrong all won
and have tested positive in last 20 years
9.10 Effects of Drug Use in Sport
• WADA makes the list of banned substances
based on classifications
– PED’s: steroids, EPO, HGH etc…
– Recreational: alcohol, cocaine, marijuana etc…
Consequences for using
Legal: prison, fines
Ethical: banned from competing, stripped of
wins, titles etc…
Health Issues: side effects, addiction
Effects of Steroids
• Synthetic version of testosterone that stays in
blood longer
• Bio Effects: increased muscle, increase # red
blood cells, shrinking testes, sterility,
“masculinizing effect”, risk of heart disease,
kidney and liver problems, cancers
• Psych Effects: increased aggression
(debatable) and impulsivity, mood swings
Steroid Research
• Olrich
• (1999) Athletes perceptions of steroid effects
– Interviews with 10 bodybuilders, 5 had stopped
using
– Only 1 reported side effects or guilt
– All reported psychological addiction
– All reported short term side effects are not a
deterrent
• Case Study: Heidi Krieger (Andreas Krieger)
– Victim of East German doping program from age 16
– By 18 she weighed 220lbs with masculinization
effects and mood swings, aggression and problems
with sexual identity
– Career ended with knee, hip and back injuries and
she became clinically depressed and considered
suicide
– Had a sex change operation and is now known as
Andreas Krieger
9.11 Causes and Prevention of Burnout
• Smith (1986): Characteristics of Burnout
– Physical/emotional exhaustion
– Feelings of low accomplishment
– Depersonalization, apathy for sport
– Detected by:
• Maslach Burnout Inventory
• Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)
Cognitive-Affective Stress Model
(Smith 1986)
• How thoughts and feelings influence athlete’s
burnout
– Stage 1: Situation Demands: demands exceed
resources = stress
– Stage 2: Cognitive Appraisal: threat vs. challenge
appraisal of situation = anxious or excited
– Stage 3: Physiological Responses: fight or flight
due to appraisal
– Stage 4: Behavioral Response: performance issues,
cohesion problems, withdrawal
Burnout Research
• Gould (1996, 97)
• Longitudinal study of tennis players found a
number of personal & situational factors in
burnout
– Physical concerns
– Logistical concerns
– Social/interpersonal concerns
– Psychological concerns
Results indicated a combination of social and psych
stressors along with external demands contributed to
burnout
Investment Model of Burnout
(Entrapment Theory)
• Raedeke (1997)
– Assumes athletes consider costs and benefits of
their sport
– Burnout results from the imbalance between
perceived costs and benefits
– Commitment based on enjoyment: sport is
rewarding of itself—no burnout
– Commitment based on entrapment: sport is
unsatisfying of itself—high burnout risk
Burnout Prevention
– Cognitive Affective Stress Management Training
(Smith, 1980) SMT
• Mental/physical coping strategies designed to prevent
burnout in 4 steps
– Pre-treatment Assessment: interviews to assess the athlete’s
stress response and appraisal
– Treatment Rationale: athlete analyzes and gains
understanding of personal stress reactions
– Skill Acquisition: athlete learns relaxation, cognitive
restructuring and self talk
– Skill Rehearsal: stress is induced to allow athlete to practice
new stress reducing skills
• Stress Inoculation Theory (SIT)
Meichenbaum, 1985
– Athlete is exposed to increasing levels of stress in
3 stages, thereby enhancing his/her immunity
“Learned Resourcefulness”
– Stage 1: Conceptualization: athlete becomes
aware of +/-- thoughts, self talk, imagery
– Stage 2: Rehearsal: practice
– Stage 3: Application: athlete encounters low stress
and then moves up to moderate then high and
applies what was rehearsed in stage 2
– Prepare--control--cope--evaluate--overcome