Physical and Sexual Assault at Hip Hop Versus Electronic
Dance Music Night Club Events: Examining the
Drugs/Crime Connection*
Tammy L. Anderson, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice
University of Delaware
ABSTRACT
Currently, the electronic dance music (EDM) and hip-hop (HH) nightclub scenes function as a major source of
entertainment and leisure activity to a large number of young adults. However, the people who support these
scenes have been linked to alcohol and illegal drug abuse, as well as various criminal behaviors, including physical
and sexual assault. The link between alcohol, drugs and violence at nightclubs has received little scholarly
attention. This study aims to fill that void by examining how a club event’s environment (e.g., vibe, social
organization), along with individual motives and traits, impacts the relationship between alcohol, drugs, and
sexual and physical assault in nightclub settings. Comparisons are made between diverse types of club events
(e.g., HH, EDM, commercial, and underground) Examining the ADC link in nightclub settings has the potential
to expand theory and policy about the link to contemporary settings and populations that have not been
previously accounted for.
*Project funded by NIJ Grant No. 2004-IJ-CX-0040, with additional support from the University of Delaware
Research Questions

What are the patterns of drug and alcohol use to participants at hip hop and electronic
dance music events?

What are the patterns of physical and sexual assault among participants by type of
event?

What is the relationship between alcohol, drugs, physical and sexual assault offending
and victimization?

What is the explanatory role of individual and environmental factors?

How do extant theories fare in explaining the ADC + V link among the diverse groups
of participants in both types of nightclub events?

What are the policy implications?
Theoretical Framework / Contribution

Goldstein’s Tripartite Model

Common Cause Model

Toward a combined micro and macro explanation : theorizing context
and individuals.
Policy Significance

Prevention of crime and victimization via education of general public.

Reduction of health related problems related to club-related crime and
victimization.

Enhance law enforcement’s effectiveness with night-time leisure industry.

Theoretical discoveries inform new cj interventions and policies.

Assistance of leisure industry in reducing risks in its business.

Safeguarding tourism in metropolitan areas.
Project Methodology

Multi-faceted ethnographic approach

In-depth interviews with 51 diverse (race, gender, scene) clubbers

Follow-up (2 and 6 months) e-mail surveys

Direct observation of 33 club events

Data analysis using grounded theory
Utility of qualitative methods for anti-crime and victimization
research and policy

Detailed information about when, how, and why crime and victimization
happen according to the people who experience them (via in-depth
interviews), with opportunity to witness events and cross-check accounts first
hand (via direct observation).

Ability to document the web of social relationships leading to drugs, crime,
and victimization from people using open-ended long interview.

Ability to discover additional environmental or contextual risk factors for
crime and victimization that people might not consider or convey in surveys.
Discovery of information in this manner will permit improved quantitative
survey methodologies for more comprehensive studies in the future.

Richer and more effective interventions, ability to impact causes and
processes. Also assists discovery of crime and victimization and ideas for
interventions and policies better suited to victims and offenders.
Table 1. Respondent Race and Sex Breakdown (Total).
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Sex /Race
White
Black
Asian
Hispanic
Total #
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Male
9
10
4
3
26
Female
7
11
6
1
25
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Total #
16
21
10
4
51
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2. Social Class Indicators by Race and Sex (Total).
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Race / Sex
Mean Age
Mean Inc.*
High School
Educational Attainment
Some College
B.A./M.A.***
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
White Male
White Female
Black Male
Black Female
Asian Male
Asian Female
Hisp. Male
Hisp. Female
26.6
25.2
26
22.2
28.5
25.4
26.3
25
$27,000
$26,520
$29,000
$25,860**
$55,900
$34,500
$35,250
$4,800
3
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
5
3
5
5
2
1
1
.
1
2
2
5
1
3
.
.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Totals
25.3
$36,820
15
22
14
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
*
**
***
Income data is annual, and was provided for 45 of the 50 respondents. Six respondents were unemployed and not earning an income at the time of the
interview. The mean figures do not include data for those six.
The mean income for black females may be artificially inflated due to one respondent earning $69,000 a year. If she is excluded, the mean income for this
category drops to $18,600.
One respondent had a graduate degree - a black female with a Master’s in computer science. Four others were pursuing advanced degrees - 2 Asian females,
1 black female, and 1 white male.
Table 3. Hip-Hop Respondent Demographic and Social Class Indicators.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Race / Sex
#
Mean Age
Mean Inc.
High School
Educational Attainment
Some College
B.A./M.A.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
White Male
White Female
Black Male
Black Female
Asian Male
Asian Female
Hisp. Male
Hisp. Female
3
2
7
9
2
5
1
1
26.3
28.5
26
23.7
26.5
25.4
29
25
$23,000
$38,000
$28,000
$26,830*
$60,000**
$34,500
$50,000
$4,800
1
.
1
.
1
1
.
1
2
1
4
4
.
1
1
.
.
1
2
5
1
3
.
.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Totals
30
26.3
$33,140
5
13
12
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
*
**
The mean income for black females may be artificially inflated due to one respondent earning $69,000 a year. If she is excluded, the mean income for this
category drops to $18,400.
Mean income for the Asian male category is based on data from one respondent only.
Table 4. EDM Respondent Demographic and Social Class Indicators.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Race / Sex
#
Mean Age
Mean Inc.
High School
Educational Attainment
Some College
B.A./M.A.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
White Male
White Female
Black Male
Black Female
Asian Male
Asian Female
Hisp. Male
6
5
3
2
1
1
2
26.8
24
26.7
19.5
29.5
25
24
$29,600
$23,650
$32,500
$20,000*
$57,500
$24,000
$20,500**
2
2
1
1
.
1
1
3
2
2
1
2
.
1
1
1
.
.
.
.
.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Totals
21
25
$29,700
8
11
2
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
*
**
Mean income for the black female category is based on data for one respondent only.
Mean income for the Hispanic male category is based on data for one respondent only.
Table 5. Direct Observation of Events by Type.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Event Type
Commercial1 HH2
Commercial EDM3
Underground4 HH Underground EDM
Mash-ups5
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Weeklies6
6
1
5
1
.
Monthlies7
Superstar One-offs9
2
2
1
3
4
.
3
1
2
2
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Totals
10
5
9
5
4
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Commercial refers to large events at clubs that replicate and appeal to mainstream music interests, styles, and forms and are marketed to as many clubbers as
possible. These parties are primarily focused on profit, not any musical genre or scene.
HH = Hip Hop.
EDM = Electronic Dance Music (techno, house, trance, break beat, drum and bass, etc.).
Underground refers to smaller parties held at smaller clubs for those loyal to or interested in music that is not commercially available or played in
conventional outlets.
Mash-ups are a new music scene developing around a DJ mixing together vastly different genres of music (reggae, HH, pop, house, rock) to a slower,
groove-friendly beat.
Weeklies are named parties held on a particular day every week, usually from 9pm until 2am. They tend to draw smaller crowds and are heavily populated by
scene insiders and/or enthusiasts.
Monthlies are named parties held once a month–usually on a weekend and from 9pm until 2-3am. They tend to draw slightly larger crowds, have more
status, and are populated by scene enthusiasts and some “outsiders.”
Superstar one-offs are one-time events that often obtain special permits to run past normal bar hours. They feature a superstar DJ or DJs and are typically
held at large clubs to accommodate large crowds that are very diverse.
Types of Physical Assault Committed and Experienced
by HH and EDM Respondents

Most common is minor physical assault (e.g., fights with punching, kicking)
among male clubbers stemming from hyper-masculinity, power/reputation
disputes, possession of females. Most often at more commercial parties).
Some minor injuries for staff and clubber. Other forms include males
‘roughing up’ females, i.e., pushing women or pinning them up against walls,
or females in fights over males.

Major assault (stabbings, gunshot wounds, trauma with objects-beer bottles)
and weapons offenses leading to serious injury, mostly of club staff but also
of male clubbers.
Types of Sexual Assault Committed and Experienced by
HH and EDM Respondents

Verbal assault and sexual harassment- of females by males.

Minor sexual assault – Groping, pinching, of females’ genitals by males
extremely common. A “cost” of clubbing- not defined as a sexual assault.

Attempted sexual assault via spiked drinks- most commonly reported by
females, perceived perpetrator is male.

Stalking of women by men, both inside and outside the club.
Drug and Alcohol Use Frequency by Respondents by Scene*
EDM Scene:
Present use:
 Alcohol (Most, semi-weekly)
 Marijuana (Most, daily to weekly)**
 Cocaine (Few, weekly to semi-monthly)****
 Pres. Narc (Few, monthly to bi-monthly)
 Ecstasy (Few, bi-monthly to annually)
*
**
***
****
Hip-Hop Scene:
Present use:




Alcohol (Most, semi-weekly)
Marijuana (Most, daily to weekly)***
Pres. Narc (Few, bi-monthly to
annually)
Ecstasy (Few, annually)
A total of 26 respondent transcripts were coded, 13 in each scene. Use patterns represent only those 26.
There were 8 reported daily/weekly, and 2 monthly marijuana users in the EDM scene. Of the 3 who did not use, 2 were former self-confirmed poly-substance addicts, the
other was a former daily user. All of these 3 were male.
There were 7 reported daily/weekly, and 1 monthly marijuana user in the HH scene. Of the 5 who did not use, 4 were female, the other was a male former daily user who had
recently quit.
Current cocaine use in the EDM scene was reported by 3 respondents, 2 female, one male.
Drug and Alcohol Use by Respondents by Scene

By far, alcohol and marijuana were the most commonly abused substances in both HH
and EDM scenes.

Several respondents in both scenes reported daily marijuana use, some using multiple
times a day. Most marijuana use happened outside of night-clubs, but some took place
inside.

When queried on the number and type of drinks consumed, many reported exceeding
binge-drinking levels at night clubs. Binge-drinking consumption was slightly more
common in the HH scene.

Thus far, cocaine found only among EDM respondents, is used for
psychopharmacologic properties, but it is also a status symbol for certain sub-scenes.

Prescription narcotic use reported to largely take place outside of clubs. It is often the
result of drug diversion.
Alcohol-related Crime and Victimization

Alcohol is a social lubricant that is important at events where the vibe is a commercial
one about hooking up and getting loaded.

Most crime and victimization experiences were related to the consumption of alcohol,
in both the psychopharmacologic way and in new ways consistent with the common
cause paradigm.

Fighting: Most of the male respondents in both the EDM and HH scenes reported
that alcohol consumption was often a precursor to verbal and physical confrontations.

Sexual Harassment: Most females reported that encounters of verbal confrontations
and sexual harassment were perpetrated by males under the influence of alcohol.

Verbal Harassment: Females’ rejection of male sexual advances often resulted in more
forceful attempts (‘roughing up’) at intimate behavior, or verbal assaults and
harassment.
Drug-related Crime and Victimization

Unlike alcohol, marijuana use was not reported to be a factor in victimization reports.
Conversely, marijuana was reported to inhibit victimization and criminal experiences,
due to its psychopharmacologic properties.

Most other drugs (cocaine, pills, ecstasy, etc.) were not used frequently enough to be
implicated in recent victimization experiences.

However, many reported curtailing or having altogether quit use of “harder” drugs
due to prior negative interpersonal, legal, and in some cases, victimization experiences.

Assault attempts: There were numerous reports by females of male club attendees
attempting to spike their drinks, as part of a perceived attempt to commit sexual
assault.

Predatory behavior: There were also reports of males loitering outside of night-clubs
after events had ended, attempting to take sexual advantage of intoxicated women.
Social Context or Macro-Level Risk Factors for
Alcohol and Drug-Related Physical Assault

Vibe of the party is an important factor that shapes behaviors and
consequences.

Physical layout and characteristics of the venue also produce risk.

Club Capacity and Crowding.

Staff backgrounds, responsibilities and behavior/style of operation.

Drink specials, alcohol as social lubricant.
Social Context Factors for Alcohol and
Drug-related Sexual Assault

Vibe of the party (gendered gaze) is an important factor that shapes
behaviors and consequences.

Physical layout and characteristics of the venue also produce risk.

Staff backgrounds, responsibilities and behavior/style of operation
(preference to serve women 1st).

Drink specials, over-consumption of alcohol.

Drug Discounts for women.
Theoretical Contributions

Contextual Facilitators - vibe and social organization - as contribution to Goldstein.

Toward a new framework linking individual/motivational and
environmental/contextual factors
Contextual factors: opportunity.



Contextual factors: motivations.



social and physical organization.
specific redefinition of crime and victimization.
Individual behaviors influenced by the club event’s vibe and social organization.
Different types of clubbers have different motives- scene insiders versus outsiders.
Context-specific and individual gender identities and norms.
Policy Implications

Clubbing environments are great facilitators of positive and negative behaviors, thus altering them
is an important intervention point. This study illustrates how important environmental factors are
in shaping individual identity and behavior well into adulthood. Even if people are only
temporarily in such environments, they are subjected to powerful forces.

Club Owners (screen employees backgrounds and work activities, improved staff deployment,
security authoritarian style with low machismo, increase weapons checks, reduce offerings of
drink specials, tone down sexual vibe of events, bathroom staff).

Club security are a critically important factor in vibe of event and prevalence of crime and
victimization. Must have respect of clubbers and control of venue. Authoritative not
authoritarian. Not hyper-masculine acting but a confident presence is a plus.

Local law enforcement- continue policing/patrolling large venue exterior through the end of the
event, including secluded areas. Collaborative relationships with club owners, staff, and private
security.

Educational- Add “clubbing dangers and risks” links to Federal webpages and partner with local
event promotional groups for the same. Dissemination of dangers and risks in clubbing. Follow
some of London’s model.
Future Research

Recommend full-scale study of the incidence and prevalence of physical and
sexual assault in nightclubs, including that emanating from contacts made
within (require a longitudinal quantitative design).

Recommend combining qualitative component in to further develop
theoretical, explanatory model of micro/macro factors. One result would be
a model that could later be tested via a quantitative survey approach for
additional validity, reliability, and utility.

Recommend investigation into social, economic, and health (mental and
physical) consequences emanating from physical and sexual assault in
nightclubs: female victims as well as business impact.