POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND THE CLASSROOM
The Influence of Political Correctness in the Classroom
Research Proposal
Rachel Phillips
James Madison University
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Abstract
This proposal examines the link between political correctness and the classroom. Research
suggests that political correctness has the ability to affect discussion in the classroom in a
negative way. The proposed study will examine how students perceive political correctness
influencing conversation and discussion in the classroom. This research will study approximately
88 undergraduate students of junior and senior standing at James Madison University. In order to
study political correctness in the classroom, this research will hold several focus groups with
students from different majors to discuss the potential concerns about the role of political
correctness in the classroom.
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Introduction
This proposed research study will examine the potential tensions between political
correctness and freedom of speech in the college classroom. Political correctness, as defined by
Merriam-Webster Online, is “conforming to a belief that language and practices which could
offend political sensibilities (as in matters of sex or race) should be eliminated” (Politically
Correct, n.d.). The question that this proposed research will address is, “in what ways do JMU
students perceive political correctness influencing conversation in the classroom?” This research
proposal will begin with an introduction and a justification for the proposed study. Next, the
proposal will provide a literature review. Finally the proposal will end with an explanation of the
proposed methodology and conclusion.
Justification
The topic of political correctness in communication deserves to be researched further in
depth for many reasons. The first reason political correctness is worthy of a study is because
researchers have suggested that it is beginning to isolate individuals. According to Gallagher
(2013), “The effect of political correctness has been to make everyone avoid these topics
altogether -- thereby hindering our ability to get comfortable in living and working with those
who are different from us” (para. 6). Gallagher mentions that while the intention of political
correctness may have been to use less derogatory terms to create more respect for one another, it
has made society more uncomfortable with people who fit politically incorrect terms. This
research study can see whether JMU students feel political correctness has influenced
conversation in the classroom.
Another reason that this question is worthy of further study is because people might become
so engrossed with trying not to offend others that they may never bring up significant discussions
regarding diversity. Livermore (2010) writes that one of his colleagues said, “ Sometimes
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Americans are so caught up with political correctness that it impedes having a real conversation
about the issues of inclusion and diversity” (para. 5). By being politically correct, society may
not be having the conversations it needs to have. The proposed research question can provide
valuable insight as to whether students perceive that conversation in the classroom is being
limited.
A third reason for studying the effects of political correctness is because although it
might limit communication, political correctness is also necessary in U.S. higher education to a
certain extent to achieve certain U.S. social values. Ayim (1998) writes, “If we mean by political
correctness social pressure to minimize sexual and racial harassment, to discourage homophobic,
racist, and sexist discourse within educational settings, and to curtail in general policies which
continue to victimize oppressed groups, then political correctness is not merely correct, but
morally obligatory as well.” (p. 475). This proposed research study can help determine whether
students perceive political correctness as necessary to achieve these values.
Literature Review
To conduct the appropriate research for this literature review, the databases utilized were
Communication & Mass Media Complete (EBSCO), Academic Search Complete (EBSCO), and
Google Scholar. These databases led primarily to academic journals in the fields of
communications, education, and sociology. Areas that were considered appropriate for this
research topic are: “freedom of speech,” “politeness,” “political correctness,” “political
correctness and classrooms,” “politeness and harm,” “freedom of speech and the classroom,” and
“classroom discussion.” Articles were eliminated if the research presented was solely based
outside of the classroom and did not provide a sufficient definition or basis of understanding for
political correctness. For example, research revolving around political correctness in the press,
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media, and government was removed. Articles were deemed especially important to this research
if they focused on political correctness, freedom of speech, and diversity.
This literature review is organized into three sections. These sections include political
correctness, freedom of speech in education, and diversity and politeness in the classroom.
Political Correctness
Researchers in the field of communication have created many methods of defining and
studying “political correctness.” This section of the literature review will specify four definitions
provided in previous research studies that are particularly relevant. This section will also provide
information on previous methodologies for studying political correctness.
According Bailey and Burgoon (1992), political correctness is an area that, until recently,
had yet to have a consensual definition among communications researchers. Bailey and Burgoon
(1992) stated that political correctness is a way of exhibiting competent communication.
Andrews (1996) wrote that political correctness is the practice of using sensitive language in the
public and social contexts, especially in naming, in order to prevent offensive language.
According to Feldstein (1997), political correctness was originally brought upon by the
suppression of women and minorities, and political correctness now serves to correct offensive
language so that the United States can function as a more holistic society. Ayim (1998) explicitly
stated that the realm of political correctness encompasses areas including: “policies governing
fair language practices, affirmative action in hiring practices, legislation dealing with sexual and
racial harassment, and greater inclusion of women and people of Colour in the curriculum” (p.
446). Ayim (1998), however, believes that the true definition of PC does not serve to strengthen
the politically correct movement, but those who are opposed to the movement.
In addition to producing several definitions for political correctness, researchers also have
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generated various ways to study political correctness. For example, Fairclough (2003) conducted
a study of political correctness as related to culture. To perform the research, Fairclough used
qualitative methods, providing a set of observations and critiques from three different
standpoints: “socio-cultural, theoretical, and political” (p. 17). Carey (1992) also researched
political correctness by performing an observation analysis. Carey (1992) looked at political
correctness through a political and cultural lens to define how political correctness appears in
other cultures and political parties, such as in the conservative versus the far left parties in the
United States. Halmari (2011), however, approached political correctness in a different way and
instead chose to define distinct language patterns. Halmari (2011) analyzed language patterns in
the Houston Chronicle archives and compared these patterns to those found from Google News.
Halmari (2011) found concrete data about linguistic shifts from non-politically correct terms to
politically correct terms.
In summary, researchers conclude that political correctness is a practice of choosing
appropriate language in order to refrain from offending sensitive parties. To study political
correctness, researchers frequently have used qualitative methods such as those used in
Fairlcough’s (2003), Carey’s (1992), and Halmari’s (2011) research.
Freedom of Speech in Education
When researching the possible limitations of freedom of speech in the classroom, it is
crucial to examine the role of freedom of speech itself. The following researchers have studied
the effects of freedom of speech on classroom discussion.
White (2011) focused on minorities, and specifically classroom participation as
related to cultural conflicts. The basis of White’s (2011) research was to inform K-12 (grade
school) teachers of how to be “aware of the conflicts that may arise due to issues of personal and
POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND THE CLASSROOM
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cultural representation” (p. 250). White (2011) concluded that freedom of speech is important to
have in classrooms, but if a student is forced to speak, it can be very oppressive to this person.
Similarly, Boler (2000) researched the role of free speech among students from diverse
backgrounds. However, Boler (2000) instead used a rhetorical analysis for her methodology,
analyzing previous articles as well as self-reported instances regarding freedom of speech in
education. Boler (2000) concluded that in order to allow a true sense of free speech, minority
students need to be given more of an opportunity to speak. Fleck-Henderson and Melendez
(2009) conducted a study wherein Masters of Social Work (MSW) students who identified with
any beliefs that are considered not to be the norm, were studied to examine how these pre
existing conditions may have been inhibiting their freedom of speech. This research was
conducted at a social work school in a “liberal North Eastern state in the days following the
2004 US presidential election” (p. 32). Fleck-Henderson and Melendez (2009) used a volunteer
sample and interviewed 11 students that were from diverse backgrounds for an hour each. They
found that “most notably, some students were intimidated by their classmates and experienced
faculty as open, facilitating, and honoring of difference” (p. 43). This suggested that while
faculty are working on enforcing freedom of speech in the classroom, there is still room for
improvement among the student population (Fleck-Henderson & Melendez, 2009). Banning
(2004) studied university level students in the classroom environment. To perform this research,
Banning (2004) analyzed specific discursive exchanges that occurred in classroom discussion.
Banning (2004) agreed with Fleck-Henderson and Melendez (2009), in that facilitators and/or
professors in the classroom should encourage discourse about political correctness. Banning
(2004) added that students should be taught to appropriately use language and to not be
uncomfortable with certain discourse.
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Regarding freedom of speech, research has examined the role of the facilitator—or the
teacher—in class discussion. For example, Fitch (2007) conducted a case study on the role of
teachers through analyzing the shooting at Virginia Tech. Fitch (2007), concluded that teachers
have the responsibility in certain situations to fully allow students “to utilize the First
Amendment” but still understand the “negative powers of expression” (p. 68). In summary,
research concludes that there is a fine line between allowing a student to flourish, and being
oppressive. White (2011), Boler (2000), Fleck-Henderson and Melendez (2009), Banning
(2004), and Fitch (2007) presented research to support this claim, however their research is
limited to certain populations which do not include the direct influence of political correctness in
university classrooms.
Diversity, Politeness, and The Classroom
Many researchers agree that diversity and politeness in the classroom often go hand in
hand. For example, Lalonde (2000) examined the different positions on political correctness
among a diverse population of 121 undergraduate students. By performing a discourse analysis
of different social groups, Lalonde (2000) could examine “threatened identities and social
attitudes” among social cliques (p. 318). This study concluded that according to the students,
faculty members had more integrated views of political correctness than students, who were seen
as intimidating.
Thein and Sloan (2012) examined the role of teaching multicultural texts in a 10th grade
English classroom. This research studied high school students by analyzing their daily discourse
and classroom conversation. They argued that students must learn to take different perspectives
to accurately assess the world they live in. Furthermore, Thein and Sloan claimed that it is the
responsibility of the teacher not only to teach freedom of speech and political correctness, but
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also to teach students how to handle diversity. Catelly (2009) focused on the obligation to teach
political correctness to K-12 (grade school) students, however sought to apply these
understandings to higher levels of education. Catelly (2009) found that political correctness
contributed to a higher sensitivity level to differences among students. To perform this study,
Catelly studied specific dialogue used by students in the classroom by performing conversation
analysis of previously recorded and transcribed conversations.
To conclude, research as a whole indicates that there is a significant link between
political correctness and the classroom. Higher education as related to political correctness is one
that, in comparison to others, is still one that remains to be relatively untouched. Not much
research has been done on political correctness directly influencing conversation in the university
classroom. The research question that this paper proposes will serve as an extension of previous
research that has been done in this field.
Methodology
The research question that this proposed study will answer is “in what ways do JMU
students perceive political correctness influencing conversation in the classroom.” This section
of this research proposal will discuss how this question is to be addressed and researched, who
will be the participants in this study, as well as the possible limitations and ethical considerations
regarding this project.
Sources and Data
This research study will examine students of junior and senior undergraduate standing at
James Madison University (JMU). This research specifically seeks these students because they
have ideally participated in at least four semesters worth of classes at the university level,
preferably at JMU. To research this question, the study needs upper class students rather than
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first and second year students because it is important for the participants to have taken a variety
of classes. This limitation is so that participants have an extensive experience of classroom
discussion at the university level. As well as having junior/ senior standing at JMU, this research
will study students from across every discipline, so as to get a better sampling of the population.
By researching upper class students from a variety of backgrounds, this study will be able to
create a more broad generalization of classroom discussion across the JMU campus.
To recruit these students, this study will use a non-purposive selection method. It will
begin by separating JMU majors into eight areas: business, media & communication, education
& teacher licensure, health and human services, hospitality/ sport/ & recreation management,
humanities & social sciences, science/ technology/ engineering/ & mathematics (STEM), and
visual & performing arts. Then, junior and senior students from each category will be emailed at
random to participate in the study, creating a total sampling of 88 students. According to the
enrollment projections published by JMU Institutional Research in 2013, there are approximately
8,800 juniors and seniors at James Madison University (James Madison University - Enrollment
Projections 2013). This research will aim to study 1% of these students (88 students, 11 groups
of 8) and hold one focus group per category of major. To provide incentive for students to
participate in this study, every student who participates will have their name put into a raffle
drawing in which the prize will be a $25 gift card.
Procedures
The data for this research will be gathered by hosting a series of focus groups with
students from different majors across James Madison University. A focus group was deemed the
most appropriate methodology for this study because political correctness can be a topic that
needs open-ended questions in order to get detailed and accurate results. These focus groups will
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include two different sections of questions. The first section will be a short survey to be
completed one day in advance to the focus group. This survey will consist of brief demographic
questions and Likert scale questions. This is so that it is possible to compare all data that is
gathered across major, gender, and ethnicity. Following demographic questions, students will be
given 4 Likert-Scale questions to answer on a survey. The purpose of the Likert-Scale questions
is to be able to quantify to what extent political correctness is affecting classroom discussion at
JMU. The Likert-Scale questions that will be asked will be placed on a scale from 1, “never
happens”, to 5, “ happens all of the time”. These Likert-Scale questions are being given on a
survey, so that they will not feel uncomfortable disclosing this information aloud. For example,
if a student were to answer 5 to a question (happens all of the time) and the rest of the group
were to answer 1, them student who answered 5 might lie and say 1 as well due to peer pressure.
Once the survey is completed (at least one day in advance) the focus group will meet and further
discuss the open-ended questions, which elaborate on the Likert scale questions.
The second section will be a series of open-ended questions. The goal of the open-ended
questions is to prompt discussion about political correctness in the classroom at James Madison
University. During the focus groups, an operational definition of political correctness will be
given to students so that everyone is on the same page while having discussions. The definition
given to the students is provided by Andrews (1996) who states that political correctness is the
practice of using sensitive language in public and social contexts, especially in naming, in order
to prevent offensive language. With a single definition of this term, students participating in this
research project will be able to better understand the questions given to them in regards to
political correctness.
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Once the questions for the survey and focus group are developed, a small group of junior
and senior School of Communication Studies students will help to pilot test the questions to
ensure that they are understandable and will produce the answers that are appropriate for the
study. If need be, at the completion of the pilot test (and the answers are not what the research is
aiming to get) the questions can be further adjusted to better fit the scope of the project. After the
questions are pilot tested, an email will be sent out to JMU juniors and seniors in all majors. The
emails of juniors and seniors at JMU will be acquired through the registrar’s office. In the email,
there will be listed time slots for focus groups in which students can sign up for, and also an
incentive will be provided to increase participation. This procedure was developed to occur in
this order to ensure that every step of the way, the research process is efficient and generates the
most accurate information possible.
Analysis
To analyze the results from the survey and focus groups, the data will remain organized
and sorted in the separate sections of the questions. All surveys and focus groups will be
recorded and transcribed for the accuracy of the data to be reported. The data for the first section
will be fairly easy to code because it is in the form of closed ended and Likert-scale questions.
The data gathered from this section will be put directly into SPSS. Using the demographic
information from the first set of questions, the data will be analyzed looking for patterns across
gender, ethnicity, and major. This information is quantitative and statistics can be used to
analyze these responses. The first section of the survey will provide information as to how
prevalent politically charged discussions are on campus. By analyzing patterns throughout the
survey, this research will be able to provide: whether political correctness is positively or
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negatively affecting JMU classroom discussion, to what extent it is affecting discussion, and will
be able to define particular instances of this.
Because the largest and most important section of the survey is open ended, each answer
will be sorted through individually, coded, and then put into SPSS. Coders for this section will
be trained together so as to have the highest intercoder agreement possible, therefore creating
more accurate results. During the analysis, the research will look specifically for patterns within
the answers of participants. If many students respond to the second section being uncomfortable
discussing politically charged topics in the classroom, the research can conclude that political
correctness is affecting classroom discussion in a negative way (or vice versa). In these openended questions, coders will look for negative terms and positive terms (which will be defined
before coding) and sort responses into those two categories.
Permissions
There are various permissions that will need to be granted in order to conduct this
research study. First, this study will need approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB), as
this research involves studying humans. It will also need permission from the office of the
registrar to acquire the emails of juniors and seniors at JMU. Before this research is conducted,
participants will also need to give informed consent before participating in this study.
Limitations
Before starting the study, it is important to note the various limitations that this research
may encounter. One of the major limitations of this study is that many JMU students overlook
emails and may neglect to sign up for focus groups. With this issue, it may be difficult to attain
the amount of responses that this research needs in order to be proven successful. However, with
an incentive to participate in this study, such as gift cards or extra credit opportunities, students
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will be more likely to want to participate. Another limitation of this methodology is that
participants may not have the time to attend a half hour to an hour-long focus group. Many
students have class all day and participate in different groups on campus, which limit their free
time to participate in this study.
As well as limitations on student participation, there are also limitations regarding
intercoder agreement and participant honesty. When analyzing the answers given during the
focus groups, there can be many different interpretations. This is why there needs to be more
than one researcher and the researchers involved must also have strong intercoder agreement.
Possibly the biggest limitation to this study would be the honesty of the participants. If the
participants involved fail to be completely honest during the focus groups, the conclusions from
the information gathered will not be accurate.
Ethical Considerations
There are some ethical considerations that must be taken into account, as well as
permissions and limitations, because this research study involves humans. The participants of
this study must be given full disclosure about the study and will need to give written consent
before taking the survey. The participants must be granted the following: the right to freely
choose research participation, the right to privacy, and the right to be treated with honesty. In
addition, participants must be granted confidentiality; therefore, if any open-ended answers to the
third section are going to be cited in the analysis of the research, it will be cited confidentially
and without specific names of participants. As this research involves only a focus group, there
are no potential risks to the students that will be participating in the study.
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Conclusion
In summary, this research proposal seeks to understand students’ perceptions of political
correctness in the classroom. Study findings could lead to significant contributions in this area of
research and lead to other subsequent research in the field, especially if there is a strong
correlation between political correctness and discussion in the classroom. This proposal requests
permission to carry out this study and to examine how James Madison University students
perceive political correctness influencing the classroom.
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References
Andrews, E. (1996). Cultural sensitivity and political correctness: The linguistic problem of
naming. American Speech, 71(4), 389-404. Retrieved from Communication & Mass
Media Complete.
Ayim, M. (1998). Just how correct is political correctness? A critique of the opposition‘s
arguments. Argumentation, 12(4), 445-480. doi:10.1023/A:1007718113969
Bailey, W. & Burgoon, M. (1992) PC at last! PC at last! Thank God almighty, we are PC at
last!. Journal of Communication. 42(2), 95-104. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00781.x
Banning, M. E. (2004). The limits of PC discourse: Linking language use to social practice.
Pedagogy, 4(2), 191-214. doi:10.1215/15314200-4-2-191
Boler, M. (2000). All speech is not free: The ethics of “affirmative action pedagogy.” Philosophy
of Education Yearbook, 321-329. Retrieved from
http://academia.edu/1250267/All_speech_is_not_free_The_ethics_of_affirmative_action
_pedagogy._
Carey, J. W. (1992). Political correctness and cultural studies. Journal of Communication
Studies, 42(2), 56-72. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00778.x
Catelly, Y. M. (2009). Political correctness - Walking on thin ice. Petroleum - Gas University Of
Ploiesti Bulletin, Philology Series, 61(1), 33-40. Retrieved from Academic Search
Complete.
Fairclough, N. (2003). ‘Political correctness’: The politics of culture and language. Discourse &
Society, 14(1), 17-28. doi:10.1177/0957926503014001927
Feldstein, R. (1997). Political correctness : A response from the cultural left. Minneapolis, MN,
USA: University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com
POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND THE CLASSROOM
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Fitch, F. E. (2008). Freedom of speech vs. student safety: A case study on teaching
communication in the post-Virginia-Tech-World. Paper presented at the meeting of the
Kentucky Communication Association, Gays Creek, KY.
Fleck-Henderson, A, &Melendez, M. (2009). Conversation and conflict: supporting authentic
dialogue in the classroom. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 29(1), 32-46,
doi:10.1080/08841230802212752
Gallagher, B. (2013, February 25). The problem with political correctness. Huffington Post.
Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/bj-gallagher/the-problem-politicalcorrectness_b_2746663.html
Halmari, H. (2011). Political correctness, euphemism, and language change: The case of “people
first”. Journal Of Pragmatics, 43(3), 828-840. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.09.016
James Madison University - enrollment projections. (2013, November 26). Retrieved from
http://www.jmu.edu/instresrch/Projections/project.shtml
Lalonde, R. N. (2000). Political correctness beliefs, threatened identities, and social attitudes.
Group Processes Intergroup Relations, 3(3), 317-336. doi:10.1177/1368430200033006
Livermore, D. (2010, May 21). Does political correctness help or hinder? ManagementIssues.com. Retrieved from http://www.management-issues.com/opinion/5950/doespolitical-correctness-help-or-hinder/
Politically correct. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved from http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/politically correct
Thein, A., & Sloan, D. (2012). Towards and ethical approach to perspective-taking and the
teaching of multicultural texts: Getting beyond persuasion, politeness, and political
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correctness. Changing English: Studies in Culture &Education, 19(3), 313-324,
doi:10.1080/1358684X.2012.704582
White, J. (2011). Resistance to classroom participation: Minority students, academic discourse,
cultural conflicts, and Issues of representation in whole class discussions. Journal Of
Language, Identity & Education, 10(4), 250-265. doi:10.1080/15348458.2011.598128
POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND THE CLASSROOM
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Appendix
Section 1: Survey of Participants: Participants will each complete this brief survey before the
Focus Group Meets:
Name: ____________________________________
Part 1 Instructions: For questions 1-4 write in or circle the appropriate answer.
1. Major: _______________________________
2. Year: ________________________________
3. Gender:
o Male
o Would Prefer not to
o Female
Disclose
4. Ethnicity:
o Caucasian
o Other:___________
o African American
o Would Prefer Not
o Latino
To Disclose
Part 2 Instructions: The below questions are on a scale from 1 (never happens) to 5 (happens all
of the time). (3 being in the middle of the two: happens some of the time)
1. I have refrained from speaking in class so that I didn’t offend anyone.
1
2
3
4
5
2. I have felt uncomfortable discussing historical events regarding political sensibilities
during class.
1
2
3
4
5
3. I have been offended by a politically offensive remark made by another classmate.
1
2
3
4
5
4. I have been offended by a politically offensive remark made by a professor.
1
2
3
4
5
POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND THE CLASSROOM
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Political Correctness Focus Group- Agenda:
I.
Welcome and Introductions: Researchers leading the focus group will introduce
themselves.
II.
Overview of project: Researchers will introduce the study to participants.
Researchers will ask for written consent of the participants to be recorded which will
used to collect data.
III.
Section 2: Open Ended Questions: (expected 5 minutes discussion per question.):
a. Researchers will provide definition of political correctness and give examples or
elaborate upon said definition if need be.
i.
“Andrews (1996) states that political correctness is the practice of using
sensitive language in the public and social contexts, especially in naming,
in order to prevent offensive language.”
ii. Examples of Politically correct vs. politically incorrect terms (i.e. bum vs.
homeless person, black vs. African-American, etc.)
b. Open-ended Questions:
i. Reflecting on your classes here at JMU:
1. When have you noticed a professor or student talking in a
politically correct manner?
2. How did that influence class discussion?
ii. Given the definition, can you please give some examples of a time you or
someone you’ve known have been offended by a politically incorrect
statement or question in a classroom setting at JMU.
POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND THE CLASSROOM
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iii. Please give examples of instances in which Professors at JMU did or did
not make an attempt to not offend anyone in classroom discussion.
iv. In your personal opinion, explain to me why or why not diversity is a topic
that needs to be addressed at JMU?
v. Describe a moment during classroom discussions, you may have felt
uncomfortable when discussing topics regarding: race, gender, sexuality,
etc.? Why?
vi. Describe a time in a class in which you thought the class was either too
politically correct or not politically correct enough?
vii. In what ways specifically do you think that you “monitor” what you say in
the classroom? Was this to avoid offending political sensibilities?
viii. During your time at JMU how has political correctness influenced your
classroom experience?
IV.
Conclusion & General thanks for the participants’ time