CHAPTER #1-INTERDEPENDENCE OF
LIVING THINGS
What is Ecology?
Study of the environment and its
surroundings
Environment-Everything around you
LIVING
NON-LIVING
Cells: organized to form tissues
Tissues: organized to form organs
Organs: organized to form organ systems
systems
individual
Systems:
Breathing
Circulatory
Digestive
Skeletal
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
Population: group of individuals of same species
living together in the same area
Community: All living things in an area
Biome: Large geographical area with a
characteristic climate
Biosphere: Region on earth in which life exists
Individual (Level 1)
Population (Level 2)
Community (Level 3)
Biome (Level 4)
Biosphere (Level 5)
Ecosystem: Interacting system that consists of a
group of organisms
Biotic: Living
Abiotic: Non-living
Respiration: “Burning” of fuels within cells
Glucose: Main fuel of reaction
-Simple Sugar
Catalysts: Permits “burning” at temperatures that
will not damage the organism(s)
Enzymes: Organic Catalysts
PRODUCERS
COMSUMERS
DECOMPOSERS
Trophic Levels: Feeding levels
Producers- Create their own food
Auto-trophs: Self Feeders
Consumers: Organisms that feed on other
organisms
Heterotrophs: Feed on other organisms
1st Order Consumer: feed directly on producers
Herbivore: Plant Eaters
Carnivores: Meat Eaters
Omnivores: Consume both plant & meat
1st order carnivores: feed on herbivores
2nd order consumer
2nd Order Carnivores: feed on 1st order carnivores
3rd Order Consumer
Top Carnivores: Humans
Predators: Carnivores which feed on live animals
Prey: Animals which are eaten
Scavengers: Feed on/in dead organisms
Saprophytes: Fungi and bacteria which feed of
dead organisms
Decomposers: Mainly bacteria
-Break down and feed on non-living organic
matter
Food Web: Organisms in an ecosystem linked
together
Photosynthesis: Food Production for Plants
CHAPTER #2-STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYTEM
Biotic: Living
Abiotic: Non-Living
Habitat: Is the place in which it lives
Niche: Organism is its total role in the community
Competition: Same habitat and similar niches
Food Web: Interdependence and interrelated
system of plants and animals
Ecological Pyramids:
Pyramid of Numbers:
-many producers –few carnivores
–many parasites
TAXONOMY OF LIVING THINGS
Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-GenusSpecies-Variety
Pouch Animals: Viviparous-give birth to live young
Oviparous: Produce eggs
Pyramid of Biomass:
Heavy carnivores/Light producers
Biomass-total of mass of all living organisms
Pyramids of Energy:
The efficiency with which energy is passed along
the food chain is more important than either the
numbers of organisms or their biomass
Special Feeding Relationships
Symbiosis: Living together
-Close association between 2 organisms of
different species in which at least 1 of the 2
benefits
3 Kinds of Symbiosis:
-Parasitism
-Mutalism
-Commensalism
Parasitism: Relationship between 2 organisms in
which 1 benefits and the other
suffers harm
Benefits: Parasite
Harmed: Host
Mutalism: 2 organisms in which both benefit
Terrestrial Ecosystem: Land Creatures
Range of Tolerance: Depends on Factor and
Organisms
Optimum: Point at which animal lives the best
Aquatic Ecosystems: Water creatures
What affects land organisms?
What affects water organisms?
CHAPTER #3-FLOW OF MATTER &
ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
Flow of Energy in Ecosystems:
-Activity is the essence of life
-Where do organisms get their energy
-What happens to energy in ecosystems
Energy Flow is One-Way:
Clover –Rabbit-Fox
-Energy is gradually lost along a food chain
-For an ecosystem to keep operating, energy must
always enter it from the sun
-Is energy lost in a food web
Pyramid of Energy:
Nutrients
Most ecosystems need over 20 elements:
-Nitrogen
-Oxygen
Mineral Nutrients: originally entered the ecosystem
from bedrock
Non-Mineral Nutrients: Entered the ecosystem in
the form of H2O & CO2
3 Non-Mineral Nutrients:
CARBON
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN
BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE
Macro-Nutrients:
large amounts
Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium
Micro-Nutrients:
small amounts
Zinc-Iron-Sodium
Nutrient Cycle:
Recycled through an ecosystem
Water Cycle:
Transportation
Precipitation
Surface Runoff
Percolation
Ground Water
Capillary Water:
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle: 78% of atmosphere is (N2)-must
be in form of nitrate (NO3)
to be used
Changing of nitrogen to nitrates is called:
NITROGEN FIXATION
Phosphorus: Water & Soil in inorganic compounds
Nutrients pass through cycles
“Balance” usually exists in nutrients
Chapter #4-Ecological Succession
Replacement of plants and animals in an area over
a period of time
Sand Dune Environment:
Wind blows sand inland
Strong Winds
Lack of Nutrients
Shifting Winds
Few Nutrients
High day Temps
Intense Light
Low night Temps
Pioneer Stage:
Pioneer Plant-first plant to emerge
Shrub Stage:
Added nutrients & water
Example: Sand Cherry
Cottonwood Stage:
Dominant Plants
Provides Shade
Example: Cottonwood & Poplars
Index Plants:
Common to area
Index Plants:
Common to Area
Pine Stage:
Enrich soil
Example: Pine Trees
Oak Stage:
Dominate Species
Shade tolerant Species
Examples: Basswood/Hickory
Climax Stage:
Climax Community-young plants replace old
plants
Variety/Diversity of plants
Succession: Plant succession of grasses to climax
forest
Animal Succession:
Living things can change their environment;
gradual replacement of living things by another
over time
Animal Succession:
-Species Diversity
-Population Numbers
-Niche availability increases
-Total biomass & organic matter increases
-Complexity increases
Sand Dune Protection:
-Solutions?
Types of Succession:
-Primary
Succession begins in an area that has not supported
life within recent times
Secondary:
Begins in area that once supported life
Autotrophic & Heterotrophic Succession:
-Primary and secondary succession examples of
autotrophic succession
-Heterotrophic succession:
-Energy source-deaden material
-Example: Fallen Log
Each stage has its special community of living things
Lichens: Single type of organism
-Pioneers of succession
Mutualism: Both benefit
-Crustose Lichens- first to colonize
-Hyphae Lichens- obtain nutrients from placing
acid into rocks
-Foliose Lichens- Leaf like-use the freeze-thaw
method
-Froticose Lichens- Moss like-developed in soil
Succession in Lake Regions:
Pioneers: pigweed-ragweed-dandelions
Meadow Stage: Grassy area
Old Field Community:
-Dominated by biennials & perennials
-Examples: goldenrod & milkweed
Quadrat Method:
-Plots
-Reliable measure of the properties of the total
area
Arrangement:
Systematic arrangement: easier to plan & use
-Spaced widely and easily as possible
-Base Line
-Transect Lines
-Size of Quadrant
-Number of Quadrant
-Shape of Quadrant
Importance Values:
-Number which gives the relative importance of
that species in an area
Frequency:
-How widely distributed are the plants
Density:
-How close together are the plants
Cover:
-How large the plants are in the area
Frequency Equation:
Density Equation:
Cover Equation:
Basal Area-relative cover of soil
DBH-Diameter Breast Height
Relative Frequency Equation:
Relative Density Equation:
Relative Cover Equation:
Importance Value:
Sustained Yield: cut trees are replaced by trees of
the same species
Sustainable Forestry Initiative: program is a
comprehensive system of principles, objectives
and performance measures developed by
foresters, conservationists and scientists. It
combines the growing and harvesting of trees
with the long-term protection of wildlife, plants,
soil and water quality.
Chapter #5
Adaptations of organisms to
temperature, moisture and wind
Adaptation to Organisms:
Structural Adaptations
Behavioral Adaptations
5 Factors affecting Organisms:
RANGE OF TOLERANCE
-Temperature
-Moisture
-Wind
-Light
-Soil Conditions
Optimum Point
Optimum Temperature
Organisms live best
Range of Tolerance: Range between these
extremes
Poikilotherms: various temperatures
Homeotherms: alike temperatures
2 Forms of Moisture:
Organisms must adapt to:
-Precipitation
-Relative Humidity
-Optimum moisture conditions
Climate: dictates the type of vegetative growth
Deciduous vs. Evergreen
Factors Affecting Precipitation:
-Direction of Prevailing winds
-Topography (shape) of the land
-Temperature
Relative Humidity: Ratio of the mass of water in a
certain volume of air to the
mass of water needed to
saturate the same volume of
air at the same temperature
Transpiration: water vapor released from plants
Stomata: pores
Epidermis: skin
Water Content of Soil
Hydrophytes: plants in extreme moisture conditions
Xerophytes: very dry conditions
Mesophytes: moisture conditions between the
other 2 classes
Adaptations to Moisture:
Exoskeleton (thick body covering)
Wind:
-Advantages
-Disadvantages
Chapter #6
Adaptations of Organisms
To Light and Soil
3 Aspects of Light affect Organisms:
-Intensity-Brightness
-Duration
-Quality
What is Light?
-Sun gives off electromagnetic waves which have
a wide range lengths
Short: Gamma rays
Long: Radio waves
Light: Form of energy the eye can detect
Ultraviolent Radiation: Shorter than 390
nanometers
Infrared Radiation: Wave Lengths longer than 770
nanometers
Intensity: Factors affecting intensity
-Latitude
-Time of year
-Altitude
-Time of Day
-Topography
-Cloud Cover
Compensation Intensity: Intensity at which the
light is just bright
enough to make it
possible for
photosynthesis
Primary Production: Rate at which energy is stored
by producers through
photosynthesis
Saturation Intensity: maximum production
Shade Tolerant: Like shade
Shade Intolerant: Dislike shade
Orientation: Direction of Growth
Geotropism: Response to Gravity
Phototropism: Response to Light
Geotaxis: Gravity to stay vertical
Photoaxis: Angle of Polarization
Duration: Length of exposure
Photoperiodism: Response to the length of day
Long-day
Short-day
Day-neutral
Perennials: Plants come up year after
Annual: Finish life cycle in one year
Quality: Referring to the color or wavelength of light
Positively Phototactic: move toward bright light
Negatively Phototactic: move away from bright light
Microenvironment: Small Environment
Microclimate: Small climate zone within a larger
zone
Unit #1-Water Collection Bodies
Earth contains billions of gallons of water, however
small portion is readily available and easily used
by plants and animals
About .8% of the earth’s water is present in the
earth’s crust in a form that could be reclaimed
Water stored in porous rock layers is called:
Aquifers or Groundwater
Large lakes, inland seas & rivers contain most of the
earth’s usable surface water. More than half of
this water is stored in freshwater lakes. Small
portion is stored in salt lakes.
Extremely small portions are found in rivers and
streams
2 Categories in Pennsylvania:
-Running Water
-Standing Water
Running water handles the surplus amounts of
water that exists. They are involved with the
process of evapotranspiration
Running Water
Gravity primary mover of surface water
Pennsylvania contains a large number of
LIMESTONE STREAMS that serve as natural
BUFFERS to acidic fallout & support many forms
of aquatic life not found in FREESTONE STREAMS
Limestone Streams: usually spring from deep
cavities which contain
calcium salts
Freestone Streams: Start with high mountain
springs where soil is thin &
they continually increase in
size with the addition of
feeder
2 Classifications of Streams in Pennsylvania:
-Cold Water
-support trout & aquatic plants
-Warm Water
-Over 70 degrees
-Bass, Carp and Catfish
Channels: Runoff water follows these paths
-These channels converge into a
major final stream, drain a
particularly well-drained land
area
Watershed: Main drainage basin
River Basin: Large-well established watersheds
supporting major rivers
Brooks-Runs-Creeks-Rivers:
-Classified by Size
-1st order
-2nd order
-3rd order
-4th order
Coldwater: Usually colder than 70 degrees F
Warmwater: Usually warmer than 70 degrees F
45, 000 square miles of land surface in
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania drained by 3 large & 3 smaller river
basins-6 total
Smallest Basin:
Genesee River- Northcentral Part of PA
-Flows northward
Erie Basin:
-Drains Erie County & part of Lake Erie
Potomac River Basin:
-Drains the lower ridge & valleys of the south
central part of the state
3 Large Rivers
Delaware: Eastern border between New York &
New Jersey
Largest free flowing river in the eastern
United States-No dams, locks, etc.
Susquehanna River: Largest basin in Pennsylvania
-Formed by 2 large branches:
-Northern Branch-New York is where it
begins
West Branch-drains the North central part of the
state
Ohio River: 2nd largest river basin in Pennsylvania
-Formed by Allegheny & Mongahela rivers in
Pittsburgh
-Flows 1,000 miles southwest to Mississippi river in
Illinois
-Drains western PA, parts of NY, western MD and
northern WV
-Contains small navigational locks & dams that
permit large river barges to carry goods & raw
materials from PA to other states
45,000 miles of stream channels drain Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania: large exporter of water to other
states & other types of collection
bodies
Unit #2-Freshwater Ecosystems
70%-Earth’s surface
97%-Earth’s water is salt
3%-Earth’s freshwater
-of that 3%-98% is frozen
-2% usable to humans
Amazon River: South America
-1,100 tributaries
-Contains 65% of the world’s river
water
Functions of Freshwater:
-Drinking water
-Irrigating food crops
Humans-80% is water
500,000 liters of water is used to produce 1 car
WHAT HAS CAUSED INCREASED USE OF WATER?
2 Categories:
Standing Water: pond
Flowing Water: stream
2 Types:
-Standing water
-Wholly aquatic
-ponds & lakes
Partly Terrestrial:
-marshes -swamps -carrs -bogs -fens
Wetlands: Sloughs-ponds and small lakes with high
nutrient values
Potholes
Limnologists: people who study standing water
Stream Order: Classification of flowing waters
-1st order=no tributaries
-2nd order=2-1st order streams form 1 stream
-3rd order=2-2nd order streams join
3 Reasons:
-Originate in hilly country
-slope high
-stream speed is high
-turbulence causes evaporation
Small is size
-shielded from sun by over-hangings
Water from streams, springs, sub-surface runoffcontains cool water
2 Main Items: for stream order to increase
-water becomes warmer
-stream speed decreases
Environmental Gradient: Gradual Change
-Geophysical
-Chemical
-Biological
Standing Water vs. Flowing Water:
-Aeration-adding of oxygen to water
-Source of Oxygen
-Standing water=Photosynthesis
Source of Food:
-Autotrophic food chain-self feeding
Detritus Food Chains: begins with non-living organic
matter
Heterotrophic Food Chains: other feeding food chains
Adaptations of Organisms:
Unit #3-Ecology of Fresh Water Ecosystems
Ecology: The study of relations between organisms
& their environment
Levels of Biological Organization:
Individual
Population
Community
Biome
Biosphere
Ecosystem: Interacting system that consists of
groups of organisms & their non-living
environment
Flow of Matter: energy is gradually lost along a
food
chain/food web
Flow of Matter in an Ecosystem:
Mineral nutrients
Non-mineral nutrients
-macro
-micro
-recycled through an ecosystem
-nutrient cycle
Abiotic: non-living
Biotic: living
Habitat: niche
Feeding Levels:
-Producers
-Consumers
-Decomposers
Food Web:
Ecological Pyramids:
WATER & SOIL CONSERVATION
Both resources have become limited and there is
real concern that we are rapidly depleting them.
While there seems to be a sufficient volume of
water in most areas of the world, supplies of
usable water are generally insufficient due to
misuse-poor management-pollution
Productive land is becoming a scare commodity
and ownership is very expensive
Water:
We live on the water planet
Our bodies and the bodies of plants and animals
are about 80% water
Potable: drinkable-free from harmful chemicals
and organisms
Water is an essential nutrient for all plant and
animal life. Water transports nutrients to living
cells and carries away waste products.
Fresh Water: Water that flows from the land to
oceans and contains little or no salt
Domestic: Household use
Salt Water: Water that rests on the land and
contains salt
Tide Water: Water that flows up the mouth of a
river as the ocean tide rises.
Food Chains: The interdependence of plants and
animals for food
Universal Solvent: Water-material that dissolves or
otherwise changes most other materials
Ocean Water:
-Gathers and transports nutrients
-Is the habitat for micro-organisms
-Carries life supporting oxygen
-Cleanses and Purifies
Water Cycle: The cycling of water between the
water sources, atmosphere and surface areas
Land: Provides us the solid foundation for our
structures, nutrition and support for plants and
space for work and recreation.
Soil: is an important component of land
Soil must contain:
-The correct proportions of soil
-Correct balance of nutrients
-Contain some organic matter
-Contain adequate moisture
Deserts:
-Areas with continuous severe water shortages
Irrigation Practices:
-Addition of water to plants to supplement that is
provided by rain/snow
Precipitation:
-Formation of rain/snow caused by the change of
water in the air from a gaseous state to a liquid
state
Evaporation:
-Changing from a liquid to a vapor or gas
Land serves as a container or reservoir
Water Table:
-The level below which soil is saturated or filled
with water
Water moves upward in the soil from the water
table to provide water for plant roots
Micro-organisms that live in the soil and
contributes to the soil’s fertility and structure
Fertility:
-The amount and type of nutrients in the soil
Types of Ground Water
Soil is saturated when water is added until all the
spaces or pores are filled
The water that drains out of soil after it has been
wetted is called free or gravitational water. This is
what feeds wells and springs.
Plant roots can absorb or take up this moisture
called capillary water. Water that is held to tightly
for plant roots to absorb is called hygroscopic
water.
Plants contribute to water absorption and reduce
soil erosion.
Worms-insects-bacteria and other microscopic
plants and animals contribute by decomposing
plant & animal matter.
Conserving Water & Improving Water Quality
Improvement of water quality can be achieved by
proper land management-careful water storagewater handling methods.
Practices to Reduce Water Pollution
Save Clean Water
-Purify: removal of all foreign materials
-Dispose of household products carefully
-Care for lawns-gardens-farmland carefully
Practice sensible pest control
Control water run-off from lawns-gardens-feedlotsfields
No-till=Planting crops without plowing or disking
the soil
Contour=Following the level/slope of the land
around a hillside
Advantages:
-Securing soil with plant material
-Increasing absorption of water
-Carrying runoff water away safely
Gully Erosion: Removal of soil to form narrow and
deep trenches
Sheet Erosion: Removal of even layers of soil
Methods for Reduction of Wind/Water Erosion
-Keep soil covered with growing plants
-Cover soil with mulch
Mulch=Material placed on soil to break the fall of
rain and prevent weeds to occur-helping improve
the appearance.
Utilize conservation tillage methods
Using techniques that disturbs the soil the least and
leaves maximum plant residue on the surface
Plant Residue: Plant material left when a plant dies
-Use contour practices in production
-Use strip cropping=alternating strips of row
crops(corn) with strips of close growing
crops(alfalfa)
-Rotate crops=planting of different crops in a given
field every year or several years
-Increase organic matter in soil=dead plant &
animal tissue
Aggregates: Gel-like substance which holds soil
particles together
-water absorbing & nutrient holding soil
-Provide correct balance of lime & fertilizer
Lime: Material that reduces the acid content of soil
Fertilizer: Any material that supplies nutrients for
plants
-Establish permanent grass waterways
Grass Waterway: Strips of grass growing in the low
area of a field where water can gather
41 million acres (10%) of our nation’s cropland is
highly erodible at rates of 50 tons per acre per
year
Ground water contamination can threaten the
health of large populations
Aquifer: Water bearing rock formation that lies
underground
Soil erosion can be reduced by good land
management practices
Soil Conservation Methods
-Reducing rain impact
-Reducing the speed of wind/water moving across
land
-Construct terraces
-Soil/wall structure built across the slope to
capture water
-Avoid over-grazing
-Damage to plants and/or soil due to animals
eating too much plant material at one time
-Use land according to conservation plan
-Maximum production without unacceptable
damage to land
-Control soil erosion
-Avoid spillage/dumping of gasoline-fuel-oil on
ground
-Keep chemical spills from running or seeping into
water or soil
-Properly maintain your septic system
Land Erosion: Wearing away of land is a serious
problem world-wide.
Port: Having a harbor for ships to take on cargo
Research has shown it takes 300 to 500 years for
nature to develop one inch of topsoil from
bedrock
Large areas of the world (3rd world nations) are
using a farming technique called “slash & burn”
agriculture
Each year, 1.6 billion tons of soil are worn away
from 417 million acres of United States farmland
into lakes-streams-rivers
1 ton=2,000 pounds