SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY- AMERICA
IN WWI
AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY
BEFORE WWI
PROGRESSIVISM AND FOREIGN
AFFAIRS
• We have always thought of ourselves as having a
special place in the world (Manifest Destiny) and as
we became the largest economy in the world it
seemed only natural (to us) that we become a new
kind of world leader
• Not after territorial gain, (though we like making $$)
-- we REALLY like cultural imperialism, other parts of
the world should be like us. Often discussed foreign
policy with the language of freedom – we had a
supreme faith that our way was the right way
IMPERIALISM AND TEDDY ROOSEVELT
• TR was a hero of the Sp-Amer war, and our
youngest president (42 when McKinley shot) known
for flamboyance and hugeness of personality.
• Loved America- and wanted the rest of the world
to Admire her as well- firmly convinced it was our
time to take a seat amongst the world powers.
Expansionist- wanted to expand our influence for
the good of humanity.
• “Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick”- not afraid to
bully others into his opinion
RUSSO JAPANESE WAR
• 1904-05 Both claimed territory in
Manchuria and Korea- and fought.
• Japan has spent 40 years
modernizing and industrializing….
Russia, not so much.
• Japan’s new navy spanks Russiawhich is SHOCKING for many
Europeans, but they run short of men
and $$.
• TR is worried about US interests in
Pacific- brokers the peace (Treaty of
Portsmouth) to end the conflict. TR
wins Nobel Peace Prize
JAPANESE AMERICAN RELATIONS
• Japan felt “robbed” of victory over Russia
Naval race started between US and Japan
• Also- US doesn’t have a great track record
with rights for Asians – already have Chinese
exclusion, and California passed a law
mandating segregated schools for Asian
children. Japan VERY insulted, emperor
appealed to Roosevelt. In “Gentlemen’s
Agreement”, TR arranges to have
California law repealed- Japan agrees
to limit immigration
BIG STICK POLICY: PANAMA
CANAL
• Canal across Isthmus of Panama had been
begin by the French in the 1870s – they
gave up on it.
• In 1903 US we want to get it going againthe problem is… the land we want belongs
to Columbia, and they won’t let us build. TR
secretly backs a revolution in Panama- and
presto, we get our territory. Finish in 1914 at
cost of $367 million
• Our treatment of Central/South American
governments is earning us the nickname
“Bully of the North”
ROOSEVELT COROLLARY TO MONROE
DOCTRINE
• Latin American trade significant to US. They aren’t
industrialized, we can sell them stuff – and they have
boatloads of raw materials. Keeps US involved in Latin
American politics, and we had made ourselves
responsible for all of the Americas with the Monroe
Doctrine way back in 1820- but that was pretty much
just “talk”
• TR puts talk into action- saying that the
US as a “civilized” nation had a “duty”
to “police” those who were either
“Uncivilized, undeveloped or both”
(White Man’s Burden anyone?)
TAFT: DOLLAR DIPLOMACY
• TR wanted power and
prestige for the US- his
successor, William H Taft,
wanted to make $$.
• Dollar Diplomacy says US
foreign policy should be
based on whatever will
make the most $$. We
get involved in political
events (like a revolution
in Nicaragua) so we can
control the economic
outcomes
WOODROW WILSON: MORAL
IMPERIALISM
• Wilson is full of a sense of
righteousness. Our duty is to
foster the spread of
democracy – and “convert
others to the principles of
America”. Lots of interventions
as he tries to get rid of military
dictatorships in Latin
America….which is a complete
fail, as it is still the most
common form of government
there today
MEXICO
• Biggest area of intervention. 1913 a
military coup d’etat under General
Huerta executed the president of
Mexico (who had overthrown and
dictator in 1911) and led to civil war
between Huerta and peasant
(Marxist) revolutionaries led by
Pancho Villa.
• Wilson torn- hates ideas of Marxism,
but thinks Huerta is a murderer. US
troops get involved after skirmishes on
the US border kill 17 Americansnearly led to full out war with Mexico
(which might have kept us out of
WWI)
AND NOW FOR THE BIG
SHOW…. WWI
THE WAR BEFORE AMERICAN ENTRY
• The “Great War” (War to End All War) was the
largest conflict the world had ever seen- the 1st
Total War.
• Turning point in European history- this is the
beginning of the end for them (at least in terms of
where they had been since age of discovery)
CAUSES OF THE WAR
• Every country went into this conflict
willingly- with their eyes wide shut…. Every
nation had issues with each other- and was
certain this was the way to get what they
wanted. Main Factors
• Nationalism: Eng v. Ger, Fr wants back in, Russia wants
respect, Austria want to survive
• Colonial Issues: Ger wants an empire- everyone is
jealous of Eng
• Self Determination: Eastern Europe v. the Austrian and
Russian Empires
• Entangling Alliances: Washington said to avoid them for
a reason…..
THE COURSE OF THE WAR
• France/Russia/Britain v. Germany/Austria/Italy
• Stalemate on Western Front (failure of Schlieffen
Plan) with Trench warfare
• Eastern front bigger (in area and casualties), Russia
getting pounded, leads to their revolution in 1917
THE DIFFICULTIES OF REMAINING NEUTRAL
• We never “really”
were- after all, our
heritage was in Europe,
and 1 in 3 Americans
was 1st or 2nd
generation immigrant.
• While there were large
numbers of Americans
with German
ancestors- we always
leaned more towards
England- not just b/c of
heritage, but trade
EFFECTS OF PROPAGANDA
• Both sides used it at home and abroad,
but British held the telegraph cables, so
they controlled much of the news we
got. Full of German “atrocities” committed in Belgium
• Germans used unrestricted submarine warfare to
stop trade- sinking passenger ships like the Lusitania
that were suspected of carrying arms (which it was)
US demanded an end, or threatened war- Germans
backed off for awhile
ELECTION OF 1916
• Republicans and Bull Moose meet and agree to get
back together (TR HATES Wilson) But TR won’t run
again- and they nominate a very ineffective
candidate – Charles Evans Hughes (progressive gov
of NY- but no stance on war)
• Wilson’s slogan “He Kept us out of War” very
effective (though Wilson himself never said thisrecognizing that we would probably end up
involved)
THE ROAD TO WAR- WILSON’S PLAN
• Wilson wanted to start peace talks between the 2
sides as early as 1915, with no success.
• He did begin a policy of “preparedness” increasing
military spending, building up the army and navy
(National Defense Act and Navy Act)
• 1916 re-election campaign focused on need to
promote “Peace Without Victory”- calling for a new
world order and a league of nations
UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE
• But the Germans had already decided that we
gave too much help to Allies with our “neutral”
shipping, they needed to cut supplies.
• Went back to unrestricted submarine warfareknowing it would probably bring us into war, but
figuring they could defeat allies (who would be w/o
supplies) before we could mobilize
• 1917- Russian Revolution, we
always had a problem with
Russian Tsar- so autocratic…
but now this can be about
“democracy”
ZIMMERMAN NOTE
• German Ambassador says
that if Mexico will declare
war on US ( to distract us
and keep us out of Europe)
that once European war is
done Germany will help
Mexico get territory lost in
1840s (the Southwest) back.
• Leads to declaration of war
to “Make the World Safe for
Democracy” – spread
Progressive ideals around
the globe
MOBILIZING THE NATION
• In addition to building up existing forces, Congress
created the Selective Service Act- which requires all
men from 21-30 (now 18-40) to be registered for the
draft.
• 4.7 million (out of approx 92 million) Americans
served in the war, including 400,000 African
Amercians and 50,000 women (primarily nurses and
clerical positions)
• All this is expensive, and while taxes did go up, a lot
of $$ was raised through “Liberty Bond Drives”
which touted supporting the war as a patriotic duty.
THE PROPAGANDA WAR
• George Creel
(Muckraker) convinced
Wilson that the best plan
was promotion of the
war, not censorship
• Committee on Public
Information: created war
propaganda- posters,
pamphlets, newspaper
stories, movie shorts,
speeches (at movies)And
it works- which leads to
HUGE increases in
advertising after the war
ANTI GERMAN FEELING
• All this propaganda stirred up
resentments- which could get ugly. German
Americans were sometimes victims of discrimination
• My favorite is changing things with German names
to sound more “American”; Hot dogs, Liberty pups,
Liberty measles and Liberty Cabbage (tasty)
• Orchestras couldn’t play German composers (Like
Beethoven) Teaching German outlawed in public
schools
• “Liberty Leagues” citizens would form “volunteer”
spy committees (American Protective Leagueslacker raids)
ECONOMIC PLANNING
• Gov’t/business worked together closely- executives
helped plan economic activities- efficiency and
production stressed- and 25% of econ production will be
diverted to war effort.
• Food Administration (Herbert Hoover): regulated
distribution of food. Encouraged conservation actions
like “Victory Gardens”, “Meatless Mondays” and
“Wheatless Wednesdays” to make more food available
to send overseas.
• Fuel Administration: rationed coal and gasoline
consumption.
• War Industries Board: (Bernard Baruch) coordinated
industrial efforts. Encouraged mechanization in factories,
and hiring women, so more workers would be available
to serve in military.
NATIONAL WAR LABOR BOARD
• Econ was booming- farmers are thrilled, war has created
inflation- prices doubled 1914-1917…but wages have
stayed the same- and industrial workers aren’t happy.
6000 strikes occurred during war
• National War Labor Board created to oversee disputes
(headed by former pres Taft, with Samuel Gompers as
under-chair) Worked to prevent strikes- settled over 1000
disputes.
• Encouraged higher wages and 8 hour day
• Revolutionary: it gave federal recognition to workers
rights- became a turning point for unions membership
doubled during war
ESPIONAGE/SEDITION ACT
• WWI saw most serious attacks on civil liberties for ALL
citizens since Civil War.
• Espionage Act 1917: cannot aid enemies of the US or
interfere with the war effort Wilson asked for power to
censor papers (as an emergency power- citing Lincoln
and habeus corpus) Congress denied
• Sedition Act 1918: broadened “don’ts” to curtailing
negative speech about the war or government (like
pacifist demonstrations, or women’s suffrage protestors)
1500 Americans jailed
• IWW (socialist union) targeted- b/c they said Wilson was
going to war for wrong reasons w/o thinking who would
pay the costs. Eugene Debs sentenced to 10 years. Big
step in making socialism/communism “bad” and “unAmerican”
SCHENK V US
• Constitutionality of Espionage/Sedition acts
challenged on grounds of Free Speech
• Laws upheld: Chief Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes
said Congress had right to limit in face of “clear and
present danger” (fire test)
• After War- pardons granted to most imprisoned by
acts (though not Debs, who ran for president from
Prison in 1920, and got 900K votes)
REFORM DURING WAR
• Both Women’s suffrage and Prohibition got new
energy from wartime nationalism and government
activism
• Suffrage: Alice Paul (head of NAWA) used militant
tactics – Compared Wilson to the Kaiser, said how
can we fight for democracy abroad and not give it
to women at home. Jailed, hunger strike- made
Wilson look bad- he finally supports amendment
• Prohibition: 18 states already “dry” before war
(south, midwest and plains) Lots of breweries
German-American (unpatriotic) also want to
impose “American” ideals on immigrants.
WOMEN AND WAR
• War created significant increase in women’s employmentespecially of middle class women. Filled men’s jobs, ran
husband’s businesses, even made munitions. (though that will
mostly be wwii)
• once the war was over traditional roles returned, for the most
part…. (the “liberation” of work helps lead to the idea of the
flapper)
WHO IS AN AMERICAN?
• War created heightened awareness of “ethnic and
racial differences” with a desire to create a more
homogenous national culture – to “Americanize”
immigrants.
• Businesses (esp Ford) would fire workers who had “failed
to adapt to American Standards after a reasonable
period of time”
• Public Schools have already been working on this- and
push it into high gear with a desire to “implant into
children the AngloSaxon conception of Righteousness,
Order, and Popular Government.
• IQ Tests (1st developed for Army at Stanford) used for
“scientific confirmation” that some groups were inferior.
Sterilization for mentally inferior so they can’t pass on
“defective genes”
• Further Immigration Restrictions – as of 1917 you have to
be literate
AFRICAN AMERICANS
• The Progressives had displayed a remarkable
indifference to the inequalities and injustices being
suffered by African Americans (esp in the south)
who were not really a part of the industrial
economy or consumer economy. And of course we
have a white supremacist in the white house…
• BUT- the war is expanding our economy(which
means we need more workers), and even more
importantly- there was a movement to revive
African Americans (esp in the North) protest
W.E.B. DUBOIS
• Opposed Booker T Washington’s
accomodationist views, wanted
immediate social and economic
equality, and enforcement of political equality.
• Said the “Talented Tenth” (top 10%)of the
Black community should have full equality and access, to
show progress and encourage others
to follow in their footsteps.
• Niagara Movement: demanded end to segregation and
discrimination. (restore the rights given after civil war)
• NAACP: Founded 1910 Dubois joins, and becomes editor
of their magazine “The Crisis”Goal: Equal rights for Blacks
through use of lawsuits in Federal Court
OPPORTUNITIES FOR BLACK
AMERICANS
• Many African Americans hoped that serving their
country would lead to greater recognition. (It had
worked in Civil war) 400,000 African Americans
served in segregated units in Army and Marines.
(also denied opportunity to march in victory
parades at end of war)
• African Americans often commented on how they
had been treated with greater dignity by
Europeans (who find them a novelty)- there will be
large numbers who immigrate during the 20s,
including celebrities like Josephine Baker
THE GREAT MIGRATION
• African Americans had not had a lot of luck getting
industrial jobs in North (went primarily to immigrants) so
they continued with agriculture in the south. (90% of
African Americans live in south) But war ended
immigration- econ is booming, and factories need
workers.
• 1910-1920 550K Blacks move north. Cities like Chicago,
Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, New York and
Philadelphia all saw significant population increases.
• Sometimes thought of as a “Second Emancipation” Able
to get higher wages (though less than whites) escape
threat of lynching, and maybe even vote.
• Unfortunately they found that racism followed themmore klan activity in 20s in north than south.
WINNING THE WAR
• US fought on the Western front to break the
stalemate (eastern front gone after Brest Litovsk)
beginning in June of 1917, but really got involved in
early 1918 when the Germans launched a major
offensive (their last ditch effort- but we don’t know
that)
• Chateau Thierry and the Meuse Argonne offensive
are major US battles- and our fresh “doughboys”
helped turn the tide.
• US fought in war for 18 months- losing 115,000 men
(compared to the 10 million Europeans) spent $21
billion, including loans of over $10 billion to the allies
OPERATION ARCHANGEL
• Summer 1918. America’s “Unknown” (to those at
home) war against Russia- trying to prevent success
of Bolshevik Revolution.
• 5000 US troops took part in joint allied invasion of
Murmansk, 10,000 US troops invaded Siberia
• Prolonged Russian civil war- made communists
resentful of allies as a whole
• Wilson decides spread of communism is worst threat
facing the modern world- which made him
reluctant to take strong stands at Versailles, he is
worried other allied gov’t will fall to communists
14 POINTS
• President Wilson’s Peace Plan- his justification for
being involved in the war.
• 1st five are about diplomacy (no secret treaties,
freedom of the seas etc…)
• Next 8 are about redrawing Europe- self
determination, redistributing territory, ending some
parts of colonial domination
• But the big one for Wilson is the League- a
“gentlemen’s club” where wiser heads will prevail to
avert any further chaos.
POST WAR DIPLOMACY
• When the allies arrive at Versailles for peace
conference- it is clear there are many different
agendas.
• Britain, and esp France, want to see Germany
strength diminished, and have them “punished” for
the war. They demand reparations, demilitarization
and the “war guilt” clause.
• Hot mess of resentment and ridiculousness- solving
NONE of the problems that started the war, and
guaranteeing they will all be back for another
round
VERSAILLES TREATIES
• Germany must accept “sole blame” for war- and
pay $31 billion in reparations over 30 years, lose 13%
of their territory (alsace lorraine most important
part), accept military restrictions, and was not
allowed to join the League (of course, we never did
either…)
• Austrian/Ottoman empires dismantled- and eastern
Europe carved into a variety of new nations based
on ethnicity and self determination. Latvia,
Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia all new nations. –
border issues….(don’t worry, they won’t last long)
MANDATE SYSTEM
• Non European territories of the
Ottoman Empire were judged
overall to be “unready for
independence” and were therefore “assigned” to a
European power for protection.
• Violated promised made to Arabs by Britain during war
(they had rebelled against Ottomans in return for
support of independence) Syria/Lebanon assigned to
France, Palestine/Iraq to England.
• Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Egypt managed to
achieve independence during 1920s- but more borders
troubles, and a real resentment of European
interference
TREATY DEBATE IN US
• Wilson had gone to Versailles alone- forgetting all
treaties have to be ratified by the Senate- which
was NOT a fan of the many aspects, especially the
League of Nations. Many were looking for a return
to isolationist policy- and “collective security” was
not their game
• The US never ratified Versailles- or joined the League
of Nations. Our “Return to Normalcy” will create
problems as Europe struggles through the 20s and
30s.
LODGE RESERVATIONS
• Henry Cabot Lodge- made it him mission to defeat
treaty (not that hard a sell, Wilson wasn’t popular in DC)
• Wants to add amendments reaffirming rights of US in
Latin American (Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt
Corollary) Said League of nations unconstitutional since
original charter obligated members to defend each
other (“Congress has sole power to declare warl”)
• Wilson goes on tour to promote the need to ratify the
treaty (hopes public opinion will sway) has a stroke- and
was incapacitated for the rest of his term.
WWI: LONG TERM RESULTS
• US becomes a world leader- whether we like it or
not (and lots of us are not sure we do) Increased
nativism and threats to civil liberties
• Russian Revolution etc creates “Red Scares” and
anti communist feeling in US that will be a problem
until 1990
• Patriotism grew – even from South, this helps make
us a “nation” again
• Women will play new and increasing roles- leading
to suffrage
• Prohibition of alcohol- on last great moral crusade