Gardner’s Art Through the Ages,
13e
Chapter 14 and 15
Test review
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Mesoamerica
North America
Andean Region
of South America
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The importance of the collaborative relationship
between archaeology and art history can be
demonstrated by the change in theory and discussion
regarding the colossal heads of the Olmecs, now
thought to be the images of Olmec rulers.
Archaeological investigations have confirmed the
Maya preference for portraits of their rulers; therefore,
the same preference can be suggested for the Colossal
Head
NINE FEET
FOUR INCHES
HIGH!!!
Figure 14-2 Colossal head, Olmec, La
Venta, Mexico, 900–400 BCE. Basalt,
9’4” high. Museo-Parque La Venta,
Villahermosa.
- Carved jade
-Ax-shaped polished forms called celts - Olmec celts were votive offerings to the gods.
-Composite human animal representations may reflect the belief that religious
Figure 14-3 Ceremonial ax in the form of a were-jaguar, Olmec, from La
practitioners
dangerous
on behalf of the community
Venta, Mexico,underwent
900–400 BCE.
Jadeite, 11 transformations
1/2” high. British Museum,
London. as votive offerings under ceremonial courtyards or platforms
-Buried
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Architectural Comparison
-Comparison shows the rich visual
imagery that supported belief systems of
the New World peoples is a contrast of
their great sites. For example, Figures 145, 14-8 indicate a similarity in presenting
the concept of “civilized” governance.
Figure 14-5 Aerial view of Teotihuacan (looking south), Mexico. Pyramid of the Moon (foreground),
Pyramid of the Sun (top left), and the Citadel (background), all connected by the Avenue of the Dead;
main structures ca. 50–250 CE.
Each of these sites (Teotihuacán
(te-aw-tee-wah-kahn ) and
What are some parallels that
we can identify between
Mayan and Roman
architecture?
Copán) has pyramidal
structures and u-shaped
constructions that suggest a
similarity of belief systems,
while still indicating the
individuality of each culture.
The richness of surface
ornamentation is also reflected
in these cultures’ monuments.
Figure 14-8 Ball court (view looking north), Maya, Middle Plaza, Copán, Honduras, 738 CE.
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-Temple I is a 150 foot tall pyramid that
was a temple-mausoleum of Hasaw Chan
K’awiil, who died in 732. (tomb found
beneath the structure)
-Nine tiers of the pyramid probably
symbolize the nine levels of the
underworld
-- Structure demonstrates power of the
ruler
-Temple to Kukulkan sits atop this
pyramid with a total of 365 stairs on it’s
four sides.
-At the winter and summer equinoxes the
sun casts a shadow in the shape of a
serpent along the northern staircase.
Figure 14-10 Temple I (Temple of the Giant Jaguar), Maya,
Tikal, Guatemala, ca. 732 CE.
What does Maya architecture signify?
Figure 14-14 Aerial view (looking southwest) of the Castillo, Maya,
Chichén Itzá, Mexico, ca. 800–900 CE.
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What culture created this image?
Why is this scene important?
Classic Maya is an important
monumental relief depicting
the blood-letting ceremony
that celebrated the birth of a
son to Shield Jaguar. The
significance is the placement
of Lady Xoc in a position of
consequence. She is not the
mother of the child yet she is
celebrating the birth with the
blood-letting ritual.
Figure 14-1 Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, Maya,
lintel 24 of temple 23, Yaxchilán, Mexico, ca. 725
CE. Limestone, 3’ 7” X 2’ 6 1/2”. British Museum,
London.
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- Working in pairs
consult your textbook
and select ONE image
from a previous
chapter that you
would compare with
this piece either
formally or
contextually.
Figure 14-12 Presentation of captives to Lord Chan Muwan, Maya, room 2, structure 1, Bonampak, Mexico, ca. 790 CE.
Mural, 17’ X 15’; watercolor copy by Antonio Tejeda. Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge.
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Explain the ideas of
sacrifice that lay behind
this image.
This scene is allowing us to see
events as clearly as possible. We
see public blood-letting as an
integral ceremonial of Maya life
and ritual. The act sought union
with the underworld and
provided nourishment for the
gods.
The scene is set on a stepped pyramid with
King Chaanmuan at the center of the top
step. He wear a jaguar-skin jacket and is
flanked by masked and costumed
members of the nobility. Standing at the
right is his principal wife wearing a white
robe and holding a fan. Between the top
step and the attendants at the bottom are
nearly nude captives awaiting death.
Figure 14-12 Presentation of captives to Lord Chan Muwan, Maya, room 2, structure 1, Bonampak, Mexico, ca. 790 CE.
Mural, 17’ X 15’; watercolor copy by Antonio Tejeda. Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge.
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The Nok are the first group introduced, a people
who have no relationship with the historical
civilizations of ancient Egypt and Nubia. This
formative group created notable terracotta works,
which illustrate their knowledge of modeling in
clay (15-3). Nok ceramic heads are also shown to
have affinity with later groups, the Ife and the
Benin. While contextual archaeological evidence
regarding the meaning of these Nok heads is
elusive, based on nineteenth century colonial
observations, speculations can be posed. These
heads are not merely decorative but might be
performers or vehicles for ritual functions. There
is a history in Africa for art objects to take on
meanings and roles such as constructing
explanations for, and communicating with, the
spiritual world. These groups of peoples did not
have a written text, hence the need to create objects
which could explain and be explained.
Recently, many Nok style works have left
Nigeria through an illegal market
–Artwork worshiping gods
Figure 15-3 Nok head, from Rafin Kura,
Nigeria, ca. 500 BCE–200 CE. Terracotta, 1’
2 3/16” high. National Museum, Lagos.
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Certain objects reflected visual
imagery which was understood
throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. In
figure 15-5, the Equestrian, (from
the hilt of a fly-whisk), it could be
argued that this figure represents a
priest-dignitary because it is part of
an object that is associated with the
paraphernalia of rank and power.
There have been discovered in Mali
from the Jenne similar equestrian
figures, although created in
terracotta; these provide evidence
that a tradition existed for such
representations. The horse was not
indigenous to Sub-Saharan Africa,
so this animal could represent a
form of wealth or status.
–Elevating social status
Figure 15-5 Equestrian figure on fly-whisk hilt,
from Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria, 9th to 10th century.
Copper-alloy bronze, figure 6 3/16” high. National
Museum, Lagos.
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–Artwork elevating rulers to divine status
The Ife also were able to establish a mutually beneficial
contract with the Portuguese. Their royal signatures were
similar to the Benin. In this idealized portrait of the king
(15-6), the figure appears in the royal raiment of coronation.
Many of the items, which appear on this small zinc-brass
work, are still being used today in coronation ceremonies in
Sub-Saharan Africa. This 11th-12th century work also
shows the artist’s ability to show the flesh of the body. The
work is an idealized representation of the king, not a specific
man, but the icon, the symbol of royalty for the Ife. His
plaited crown is similar to other crowns found as singular
objects and as part of statuary being excavated. It has been
suggested that the boss on the crown represents the magic
and power of the Oni. He holds in his hand the symbols of
his office and the power of office. In his right hand he holds
the ritual bead-covered wooden staff; in his left hand he
holds an animal horn filled with powerful medicine which
will keep him from falling victim to the hostile spirits. The
beaded staff shows his kinship with the gods and their
support of him. During daily activities this staff is replaced
with the cow-tail whisk, which still shows the relationship of
the Oni to the gods and to the people.
Figure 15-6 King, from Ita Yemoo (Ife), Nigeria, 11th to 12th
century. Zinc-brass, 1’ 61/2” high.Museum of Ife Antiquities,
Ife.
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Another major center and remarkable trading site was Great Zimbabwe, located
on the southeast side of Africa. This region was to provide gold, ivory and
animal skins in trade for luxury items such as porcelain, beads and
manufactured goods. Zimbabwe's goods were transformed into highly sought
items abroad and they, in turn, imported goods from as far away as China,
indicating the level of a level of prosperity. It is thought that the ancestors of the
Shona people who still reside in this area controlled Great Zimbabwe. The term
“Zimbabwe” has been translated to mean, “venerated houses” or “houses of
stone”. Such is the case at Great Zimbabwe; the surrounding stone walls created
an integrated living space within the compound. The largest structure, the Imba
Huru or Big House, is thought to have been the dwelling of the king and his
wives. The Conical Tower (15-10) is still somewhat mysterious. It is thought that
it might represent a granary similar to what the Shona construct today, and
believed to represent the prosperity this area realized as a result of the rulership
in Great Zimbabwe. Here, construction methods became more sophisticated as
the site grew in prestige and prominence. The stonework is not mortared in
place and the walls are battered, reminiscent of the Temple of Horus at Edfu (338). The battered walls provide stability for the structure; they also slope inward
toward the top, lessening the stress and allowing the gentle movement to create a
soft rhythm in silhouette. This work shows the problem-solving abilities and
effectiveness of the architect.
Figure 15-10 Walls and tower, Great Enclosure, Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, 14th century.
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–Artwork honoring ancestors
The stone monolith found at Great Zimbabwe has
two sculpted animals that are associated with the
ancestry of the rulers: the bird with the first
wife’s ancestors and the crocodile with the wife’s
elder male ancestors. Based on this description
where would the most likely location be for the
placement of this monolith?
Figure 15-11 Monolith with bird and crocodile, from Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, 15th
century. Soapstone, bird image 1’ 21/2” high. Great Zimbabwe Site Museum, Great
Zimbabwe.
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-This ivory head probably
portrays Idia, mother of Oba
Esigie, who whore it on his
waist
-Above Idia’s head are
Portuguese heads and
mudfish, symbols, respectively,
of trade and of Olokun, god of
the sea.
Figure 15-12 Waist pendant of a Queen
Mother, from Benin, Nigeria, ca.1520. Ivory
and iron, 9 3/8” high. Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York (Michael C.
Rockefeller Memorial Collection, gift of
Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1972).
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In Benin history important events are hallmarked with objects of great
refinement to keep the memory of the event alive and also to honor those who
participated in making that memory. Such is the case with the ivory hip mask
thought to be Queen Idia (15-12). The Oba Esigie (1505-50) had the mask
made to honor his mother for her advice during a difficult period.
HISTORY OF QUEEN IDIA
According to tradition, Idia was instrumental in gaining aid from the
Portuguese in order to assist her son. Esigie was engaged in his civil conflict
with the Igala. Idia sought substantive aid from the Portuguese in the form of
firearms; this was a crucial element in gaining a victory for her son. The
Portuguese then cemented a relationship between themselves and the Kingdom
of the Benin. The Portuguese were commemorated on the hip mask as they form
a crown at the top of the mask.
With this object, the Benin artist has captured the spirit and essence of a
powerful woman. The warm tones of the material add to the personalized
quality of the mask. Ivory is also associated with the Oba, as the elephant is
one of the power animals of Sub-Saharan Africa. Ultimately, this mask has a
duality of purpose: the Oba is honoring his mother for her unstinting support
and advice; and he is also demonstrating a relationship with the Portuguese
as trading partners and allies. An underlying purpose in the iconography on
the mask is also to indicate the divine relationship the Oba had with the gods.
The Portuguese were thought to have come from the sea or watery world of
the dead. They were “reborn” on the land; they also brought with them rich
trade goods, also thought to have come from the watery world of the dead,
hence gaining even more power. This power was transferred to the Oba since
they were partners. Another motivation for including the Portuguese on the
mask is the reference to the sea god, Olokun. The Portuguese were able to
exist in the watery realm of Olokun and on land; they also had a minor
kinship with the mudfish, a royal icon. Ultimately, these diplomatic tactics
were used to create a relationship between Esigie and the Portuguese which
was beneficial for both sides.
Figure 15-12 Waist pendant of a
Queen Mother, from Benin, Nigeria,
ca.1520. Ivory and iron, 9 3/8” high.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York (Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial
Collection, gift of Nelson A.
Rockefeller, 1972).
–Artwork honoring
ancestors
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-Sapi ivory is a unique hybrid of
African and European cultures
where the saltcellars are made
for export combine African and
Portuguese traits.
–Elevating social status
-This represents an execution
scene with an African-featured
man, who wears European pants,
seated among severed heads.
- Contains scarification
(associated with African
adornment)
Figure 15-14 MASTER OF THE SYMBOLIC EXECUTION, saltcellar,
Sapi-Portuguese, from Sierra Leone, 15th to 16th century. Ivory, 1’ 4 7/8”
high. Museo Nazionale Preistorico e Etnografico Luigi Pigorini, Rome.
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