Theories & Models in Outdoor
Education
EnEd 5165
Sometimes a tree grows
too fast.
It grows ahead of its roots.
You need to allow time for
the roots to take hold.
(Anonymous saying about “life”)
Occam’s Razor
• ”when you have two competing
theories that make exactly the same
predictions, the simpler one is the
better.”(sic)
or,
• "Entities should not be multiplied
unnecessarily.” (14 century)
th
Social Interdependence
Theory
(Johnson, D. & Johnson, R.. (2002). Cooperative
learning and social interdependence theory. Theory and Research on
Small Groups. Social Psychological Applications to Social Issues. (4) pp.
9-35)
• “Social interdependence exists when
individuals share common goals and each
individual’s outcomes are affected by the
actions of others
(Deutsch, 1949, 1962; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 in Johnson & Johnson,
2002. p. 4)
Table 1. Social Interdependence Theory (Johnson & Johnson, 2002. p5.)
Process
Cooperative
Competitive
Individualistic
Interdependence
Positive
Negative
None
Interaction Pattern Promotive
Oppositional
None
Outcome 1
High effort to
achieve
Low effort to
achieve
Low effort to
achieve
Outcome 2
Positive
relationships
Negative
relationships
No relationships
Outcome 3
Psychological
health
Psychological
illness
Psychological
pathology
Group members promote each other’s success by:
(Johnson & Johnson, 1989)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Giving & receiving help
Exchanging resources & information
Giving & receiving feedback
Challenging each other’s reasoning
Advocating increased efforts to achieve
Mutually influencing each other’s reasoning &
behavior
• Engaging in the interpersonal & small-group skills
for effective teamwork
• Processing group members effectiveness for the
whole group’s improvement
Foundations of Outdoor
Education
•Experiential Education
•Environmental Education
•Adventure Education
Which follow the parent disciplines of
•Education and Physical Education
• Psychology
• Philosophy
Paradigm
Construct
Concept
Facts
Experiential Education
Experiential education is a process
through which the learner constructs
knowledge, skill, and value from
direct experiences (AEE, 11/3/94)
Experiential Learning
Requisites (Dewey, 1938)
• Simple NOT Easy
• Highly Planned NOT Spontaneous
• Meaningful NOT Meaning-less (exp. For
sake of exp.)
• Authentic NOT Contrived
• Rooted in Empiricism NOT Laissez faire
• Constructs from Personal Meaning
• Individual MORE THAN Group
• Structured NOT Phenomenological
• Requires Judgment of Instructor NOT
Unguided
• Understanding Cause & Effect requires
REFLECTION
Essential Elements of Experiential
Education (Terwilliger, 1995)
• RELEVANCE: of the experience to the learner
• PROGRESSIVE: experiences build on past
knowledge & experiences
• AUTHENTIC: outcomes are concrete with real
consequences
COMBINED WITH THE OUTWARD BOUND
MODEL:
• CHALLENGING: important to stay w/in potential
ability
• REFLECTION: ”processing” helps to shift from
extrinsic to intrinsic benefits
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development.
Outdoor Education
“Outdoor Education is the blending of both
adventure and environmental approaches into
a program of activities or experiences.
Through exposure to the outdoor setting,
individuals learn about their relationship with
the natural environment, relationships
between the various concepts of natural
ecosystems, and personal relationships with
others and with their inner self.” (Priest, 1986)
Definition of Outdoor Education (Priest, S. 1986. p. 13)
“Outdoor education:
1) is a method for learning;
2) is experiential;
3) takes primarily in the outdoors;
4) requires uses of all senses and domains;
5) is based upon interdisciplinary curriculum matter;
6) And is a matter of relationships involving people and
natural resources. The metaphorical model of a tree
describes two approaches to outdoor education.
Adventure education relates to interpersonal and
intrapersonal relationships. Environmental education
concentrates on ecosystemic and ekistic relationships.”
“What is best taught
outdoors, should
there be taught” (L.B.
Sharpe, 1949)
Definition of Outdoor Education (Priest, S. 1987)
Priest, S. (1986). Journal
of Experiential Education.
17.3. p 15.
A Model of
Outdoor
Education
Direct Experience
*Environmental
Education
(Formal)
*Interpretation
(Non-formal)
Ecological
Relationships
Ecotourism/NatureBased Tourism
Physical
Skills
Interpersonal Growth
or
Educational Skills
Adventure Education
A model of environmental
education in the U.K. Palmer. J. (1998). Environmental Education
in the 21st Century: Theory, Practice, &
Promise. Rutledge. p. 272
Definition of Environmental
Education
“Environmental education is aimed at
approaching a citizenry that is
knowledgeable concerning the
biophysical environment and its
associated problems, aware of how to
solve those problems, and motivated
to work toward their solution.” (Stapp, B.,
et.al., (1969). Journal of Environmental Education. 1,1. p. 34.)
Definitions of Environmental
Education
• Environmental education is learnng that
produces an environmentally
responsible citizenry (Hine, Hungerford & Tomera,
1987)
“Environmental education is the process of
recognizing values and clarifying concepts in
order to develop skill and attitudes
necessary to understand and appreciate the
inter-relatedness among man, his culture,
and his bio-physical surroundings.
Environmental education also entails
practice in decision-making and seelfformulation of a code of behavior about
issues concerning environmental quality.”
(International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) & United
Nations Education and Cultural Organization (UNESC)) in
Palmer. (1998). P 7.)
Approaches to Environmental
Education
(Scott & Gough, 1993)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nature Appreciation
Wilderness Preservation
Earth Salvation
Environmental Issues Resolution
Species Protection
Environmental Ethics
Science Education outside
What is Sustainability?
• Brundtlund Commission Report, Our Common
Future (1987)
o “Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.”
• Sustainability Education:
Putting the concept into
practice for citizens.
Start where the
student is at
NOT
Where you want them
to be
(Ausubel, 1975; Constructivism)
THE BELGRADE CHARTER
(Goal statement for environmental education from the 1975 UNESCO conference)
THE GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IS TO
DEVELOP A WORLD POPULATION THAT IS AWARE
OF, AND CONCERNED ABOUT, THE TOTAL
ENVIRONMENT AND ITS ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS,
AND WHICH HAS THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES,
SKILLS, MOTIVATION, AND COMMITMENT TO WORK
INDIVIDUALLY AND COLLECTIVELY TOWARD
SOLUTIONS OF CURRENT PROBLEMS AND THE
PREVENTION OF NEW ONES.
Compiled by the: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
THE TBILISI DECLARATION
Taken from the First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education,
Tbilisi, Georgia (1977)
Built from the Belgrade Charter Goals of Environmental Education:
• TO FOSTER CLEAR AWARENESS OF, AND CONCERN ABOUT,
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECOLOGICAL
INTERDEPENDENCE IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS;
•TO PROVIDE EVERY PERSON WITH OPPORTUNITIES TO ACQUIRE
THE KNOWLEDGE, VALUES, ATTITUDES, COMMITMENT, AND
SKILLS NEEDED TO PROTECT AND IMPROVE THE ENVIRONMENT;
AND
•TO CREATE NEW PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS,
GROUPS, AND SOCIETY AS A WHOLE TOWARDS THE
ENVIRONMENT
A GREENPRINT FOR MINNESOTA
(MOEE,1993)
MINNESOTA’S GOALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION:
• TO UNDERSTAND ECOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS;
• TO UNDERSTAND THE CAUSE AND
EFFECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
HUMAN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR AND
THE ENVIRONMENT;
• TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE, DEVELOP, AND USE PROBLEMSOLVING SKILLS TO UNDERSTAND THE DECISION-MAKING
PROCESS OF INDIVIDUALS, INSTITUTIONS, AND NATIONS
REGARDING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;
• TO BE ABLE TO EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES TO
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES BEFORE DECIDING ON
ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION;
• TO UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL COMPLEMENTARY
NATURE OF MULTIPLE USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT;
• TO PROVIDE EXPERIENCES TO ASSIST CITIZENS TO
INCREASE THEIR SENSITIVITY AND STEWARDSHIP FOR
THE ENVIRONMENT;
• TO PROVIDE INFORMATION CITIZENS NEED TO MAKE
INFORMED DECISIONS ABOUT ACTIONS TO TAKE ON
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.
Interpretation
• “An educational activity which aims to
reveal meanings and relationships
through the use of original objects, by
firsthand experience, and by illustrative
media, rather than simply to
communicate factual information.” (Tilden,
1957, p. 8)
What is Interp??
• An informal education process
• “A process of communicating ideas and feelings
which help people to understand more about
themselves and the environment.”
Interpretation Association Australia.
The Goal of Interpretation
“Through Interpretation, Understanding
Through Understanding, Appreciation
Through Appreciation, Protection”
The Interpretive Spectrum
Stewardship
Appreciation
Understandi
ng
Reflection
Curiosity
Interpretive Opportunity
Six Principles of Interpretation
(Freeman Tilden, 1957, p9)
• If it doesn’t relate, it is sterile
• Information is not interpretation. (Rather,
it is revelation based upon information.)
• Interpretation is an art. (Any art is teachable)
• The chief aim is provocation (not instruction)
• It should present a whole.
• It should be age appropriate (not a “dilution” of
adult material.)
Beck and Cable’s 15 Principles of
Interpretation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To spark an interest, interpreters must relate the subject to the
lives of visitors
The purpose of interpretation goes beyond providing
information to reveal deeper meaning and truth
The interpretive presentation – as a work of art – should be
designed as a story that informs, entertains and enlightens.
The purpose of the interpretive story is to inspire and provoke
people to broaden their horizons
Interpretation should present a complete theme or thesis and
address the whole person.
Beck and Cable’s Principles
6.
7.
8.
9.
Interpretation for children, teenagers and seniors – when these
comprise uniform groups – should follow fundamentally
different approaches.
Every place has a history. Interpreters can bring the past alive
to make the present more enjoyable and the future more
meaningful.
High technology can reveal the world in exciting new ways.
However, incorporating this technology into the interpretive
program must be done with foresight and care.
Interpreters must concern themselves with the quantity and
quality (selection and accuracy) of information presented.
Focused well-researched interpretation will be more powerful
than a longer discourse.
Beck and Cable’s Principles
10. Before applying the arts in interpretation, the interpreter must
be familiar with basic communication techniques. Quality
interpretation depends on the interpreter’s knowledge and
skills, which should be developed continually.
11. Interpretive writing should address what readers would like to
know, with the authority and wisdom and the humility and care
that comes with it.
12. The overall interpretive program must be capable of attracting
support – financial, volunteer, political, administrative –
whatever support is needed for the program to flourish.
13. Interpretation should instil in people the ability, and the desire,
to sense the beauty in their surroundings – to provide spiritual
uplift and to encourage resource preservation.
Beck and Cable’s Principles
14. Interpreters can promote optimal experiences
through intentional and thoughtful program and
facility design.
15. Passion is the essential ingredient for powerful
and effective interpretation – passion for the
resource and for those people who come to be
inspired by the same.
Beck and Cable, 1998,
Interpretation for the 21st Century
Essential Elements of Constructivism
(Terwilliger, 1995)
• PRECONCEPTIONS MATTER
• RELEVANCE (PERSONAL MEANING)
• CONCEPTUAL LEARNING (V. FACTUAL)
• COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FOLLOWED BY
RESTRUCTURE:FREEZE-THAW-REFREEZE)
• SUPPORTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
(PHYSICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY:
MASLOW)
• ABILITY TO GENERATE, CREATE,
PRODUCE, EXHIBIT, DEMONSTRATE
Developmental Stages of
Environmental Literacy
• Survival
• Skills’ Acquisition
• Relationships with the land and its
inhabitants
• Metaphysical feeling “connected” to
the place; A feeling of harmony
Learning Stages in Teaching
Environmental Literacy
•
•
•
•
SENSORY AWARENESS
SKILLS’ DEVELOPMENT & TRAINING
RELATIONSHIPS (ECOLOGICAL)
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
AWARENESS
• ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ACTION
Learning Theory
•
•
•
•
Constructivism (Wals, 1987)
Concept Mapping (Novak, 1977; Bosquet, 1981)
Personal Meaning (Ausubel, 1963)
Brain Based (Whole Brain) Learning (Hart,
1983)
• Native American Learning Styles (Reyes,
1989)
• Cooperative Learning (Johnson & Johnson)
Constructivist Teaching Sequence
(Driver & Oldham, 1986)
•
•
•
•
•
Orientation (motivation)
Elicitation (awareness)
Restructuring (conflict, alternatives)
Application (consolidation, reinforcement)
Review = reflection (learn about learning)
Native American Learning
(Multi-Cultural
)
(Reyes, 1989)
(Banks & Banks)
• Use family instructional techniques:
Demonstration & imitation
• Let children learn from children
• Teach through stories and legends
• Utilize visual skills (observation, visual
discrimination, and spatial configuration)
• Employ active learning strategies
• Advance holistic intuitive learning
(process information from whole to part to understand
unity in the large situation)
Indian Learning Styles
(Banks, J. & Banks, C. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. Macmillon. Pp
490-491.
• Field dependent/independent learning
styles are unreliable, espec. group
specific.
• Yet, the research literature overview
concludes similarly to Native American,
Hispanic & African American that these
groups tend to be field dependent in
their learning styles.
Indian Learning Styles
(summary)
• Prefer visual, spatial, and perceptual
information rather than verbal.
• Learn privately rather than in public.
• Use mental images to remember and
understand words and concepts rather
than word associations.
• Watch and then do rather than employ
trial and error.
http://www.cclcca.ca/ccl/Reports/Redefining
SuccessInAboriginalLearning/Re
definingSuccessModelsFirstNatio
ns.html
Multiple Intelligences
(Gardener, 1983)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Verbal-linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Visual-spatial
Body-kinesthetic
Interpersonal (build relationships)
Intrapersonal (look inward)
Naturalist
Multiple Intelligence (Gardner, H.,1983)
• Have well-formed spatial ability.
• Learn best from non-verbal
mechanisms.
• Learn experientially & in natural settings
• Have a generalist orientation, interest in
people & things
• Value conciseness of speech, slightly
varied intonation, & limited vocal range.
• Prefer small-group work.
• Favor wholistic presentations and visual
representations.
What is the outcome of in-service training?
In-service can deal with these:
Action Skills
Situational
Factors
Knowledge of
Action Strategies
Knowledge of
Issues
Intention to Act?
Responsible
Environmental
Behavior
Attitudes
Locus of Control
Personality
Factors
Personal Responsibility
Model of Responsible Behavior
(Hines, et al., 1986)
Illustration of the models of theory of reasoned action
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), the theory of planned behavior
(Ajzen, 1991)
spiritual
social
EXTRINSIC FACTORS
environmental politics,
living environment,
groups, norms
INTRINSIC PERSONAL
FACTORS
personality, values
biological
AFFECTIVE
emotional aspect
e.g. attitudes,
feelings
CONATIVE
intentional aspect
proactive and
personal
COGNITIVE
aspect e.g.
knowledge about skill
and action strategy,
beliefs
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
INTENTION TO ACT
ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE
BEHAVIOUR
Leppänen, J., 2012
Vocational Studies
Physical Education
Life Sciences
Earth Sciences
EE
Social Studies
Mathematics
Arts, Humanities
Communications
The Multi-disciplinary (Infusion) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)
Vocational Studies
Physical Education
Life Sciences
Earth Sciences
EE
Social Studies
Mathematics
Arts, Humanities
Communications
The Inter-disciplinary (Insertion or Mono-disciplinary)
Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)
Adventure Education
• A variety of self-initiated activities
utilizing an interaction with the natural
environment, that contain elements of
real or apparent danger, in which the
outcome, while uncertain, can be
influenced by the participant and the
circumstance.” (Ewert, 1989, p.6)
The Outward Bound Process
I. The Learner
Motivated - State of readiness
II. Unique Physical Environment
The use of a novel environment to
promote self awareness/ self growth
III. Unique Social Environment
Placing people with different
backgrounds and abilities together to
work toward a common goal creates an
interdependence.
IV. Presentation of a Characteristic Set of
Problems which Facilitate Mastery
(Dissonance. Festinger, L.)
A. Prescriptive & Organized
B. Progressive
C. Concrete
D. Manageable
E. Consequential
Every activity has a risk of some sort
F. Holistic
Involves emotional, mental, and
physical components.
V. Adaptive Dissonance, Mastery, and
Attendant Reconstruction
(Anxiety, Mastery, and Reconstruction)
VI. Summary
Golins, G., Walsh, V. (1975)
The Outdoor Adventure Pursuits Mix
PEOPLE
•MOTIVATIONS
•SKILLS
•SOCIAL ORIENTATION
•PREFERENCE
OPPORTUNITIES
•SETTINGS
•PROGRAMS
•SUPPORT FACTORS
•ACTIVITIES
REWARDS
•Psychological
•SOCIOLOGICAL
•EDUCATIONAL
•PHYSICAL
Influencing Factors on the Outcome of a Risk Activity
Unforeseen
beneficial
circumstances
Proper
training
Incorrect decision
making
Outcome
greater
control
Personal
abilities
Correct decision
making
loss of
control
Personal
inability's
Poor
training
Unforeseen
detrimental
circumstances
FEAR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Technique
Definition
Comments
•Systematic
desensitization
•Gradual exposure •Useful, time-consuming
to source
•Flooding
•Prolonged exposure•Often inappropriate,
to fear
can be debilitating
•Modeling
•Learning new coping•Powerful, can use
methods
instructor behavior
•Rehearsal
•Very useful but
•Practicing different
requires
adaptive behaviors
preplanning
Attitude-Behavior Model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
Beliefs
about
activity
Intentions
toward
activity
Attitude
about
activity
Behavior
with
activity
Theory of Planned Behavior
(Ajzen, I. 1991)
Attitude
toward
the
behavio
r
Subjective norm
Perceive
d
behavior
al control
Intention
Behavior