Dr. Robert Sanderson
The Oakridge School
The Age of Religious Wars
1559-1689
RELIGIOUS WARS
1559-1689
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1562-1598 French civil wars
Dutch revolt against Philip II
Scottish rebellion against Mary Stuart
Spanish attack on England 1588
Thirty Years’ War 1618-48
Puritan revolution 1640-1660
Glorious Revolution 1688-89
• The two main crusaders:
John Calvin and St. Ignatius Loyola
• Calvinists seized control of Scotland,
northern provinces of the the Low
Countries, temporarily England, France,
Germany, Poland, and Hungary
• Catholics controlled Flanders, France,
Austria, Spain, and Bohemia
• After 1689 European international
politics reverted to secularism
• The political trend during this time was
toward centralized, authoritarian state.
• Opened with Phillip II of Spain and ended
with Louis XIV of France
• It was an era of absolutism, but not for the
Dutch or the English
• It was an era of great inflation and the
development of mercantilism - Amsterdam
became the commercial center of Europe
• There was an intellectual Revolution in
mathematics, physics, and astronomy
• It was the age of Galileo, Descartes, and Newton
• It was the period of the Baroque of great art and
theater, of Shakespeare and Molière
• Western capitalism v’s Eastern agriculture
• Spain, France, England, Holland all improved,
Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Ottoman Empire
all deteriorated
• Propertied v’s the propertyless
• 1559 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis between
Phillip II of Spain and Henry II of France
• French gave up claims to Italy; Spain stopped
trying to dismember France
• Habsburg victory; Valois lose
• But started a new era of warfare neither
country could handle
• Calvinists and Catholics both ‘conservatives’ no religious deviation would be tolerated in
Christendom
• Both sides recognized new secular forces
changing Europe
a) overseas expansion
b) commercial capitalism
c) dynastic rivalry
d) nationalism
e) state sovereignty
• It would be the last medieval crusade and
the first modern war
• Calvin died in 1564, the Council of Trent
ended in 1563, Loyola died in 1556
• People no longer mediated disputes
• The Roman Inquisition and the Index of
Prohibited Books kept Catholics ‘pure’ The
Consistory of Geneva kept Calvinists ‘pure’
• Charles V sacked Rome in 1527 - not
Wittenburg
• Elizabeth I of England and Henry IV of France
pursued policies of moderation and compromise
• Mary, Queen of Scots, Phillip II, Catherine de
Medici proved ruthless but ruined their
countries
• By 1570 Huguenots were arguing against
tyrannical rule - male or female. A policy
favored by the great noblemen who wanted to
depose monarchs and return to the old feudal
days
• To Protestants “Jesuit” meant “Machiavellian”
SPAIN
• Four great rulers:
Ferdinand, king of Aragon-1479-1516
Isabella, queen of Castille (wife)
Charles I (HRE V) grandson 1516-56
Phillip II son 1556-98
• It was also the age of exploration for Spain
• 95% of the people were peasants but couldn’t
provide enough grain
• Nobility were exempt from taxation
• 1571 Battle of Lepanto defeated the Turks
• 1580 Phillip annexed Portugal
French Wars of Religion
1562-1598
• French collapse had many reasons:
a) Huguenots and catholics
b) Aristocracy and the Crown
c) Bourgeoisie and political rights
d) Paris mob
e) Riots in the provinces
• BUT religion triggered the crisis
• Francis I (1515-1547)
Henry II (1547-59)
Francis II (1559-60)
Charles IX (1560-74)
Henry III (1574-89)
• 1516 Concordat of Bologna - French bishops and
abbots nominated by the monarch
• The king was not all-powerful, he lacked money
• Opposition began during the reign of Henry II
• 3 opponents: Guise, Montmorency, Bourbon
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Montmorency was very wealthy
Bourbons claimed the throne through blood
Guise - strongest group - ultra-Catholic
Henry II was killed at a tournament in 1559
at the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, the
throne went to his oldest son - Francis II
• All the sons were dominated by their
mother - Catherine de Medici
• Catherine tried to reconcile the Huguenots
and the Catholics like Elizabeth I had done
• The Catholics turned against her and supported
the Guises
• Guises controlled northern France, Paris and
were helped by Phillip II of Spain who wanted to
see France destroyed
Elizabeth of England supported the Huguenots
• 1562 the Duke of Guise ordered his men to
slaughter a group of praying Huguenots starting the French religious wars
• Killings mounted as both sides randomly killed
any and all people
• For 10 years the killing continued - paid for by
aristocrats who loved fighting
• In 1572 a peace was declared so the Bourbon
prince Henry of Navarre could marry the sister
of the king Charles IX
• The Guises saw this wedding as a disaster
• Catherine de Medici, jealous of her sons, joined
with the Guises
• St Bartholomew’s day the Catholics ambushed
the Huguenots in their beds
• Prince Henry was allowed to live after
promising to become Catholic
• Thousands of Huguenots were killed
The pope paid the messenger 100 gold coins
• King Charles was sick - the House of Valois was
discredited and the Huguenots were still around
• 1574 Henry died and was replaced by his
neurotic brother Henry III
• Catholics and Huguenots hated Henry and the
fighting resumed
• 1576 Henry of Guise formed the Holy League to
destroy all Huguenots
• Prince Henry of Navarre, heir to the throne,
renounced his Catholicism and led the Huguenots
• The War of the Three Henries
Guise v’s Valois v’s Navarre
• 1588 Phillip II order Guise to stage a riot in Paris
to prevent the French from interfering with his
Armada
• The king fled the city and left Guise in charge, he
forced the king to make him chief minister
• But Phillip’s Armada was badly defeated and he
was powerless to help Guise
• Henry III plotted to have Guise
assassinated
• Henry III joined with Henry of Navarre to
crush the Catholics, but III was also
assassinated by a fanatical monk
• Only Henry of Navarre was left
• It took Henry 10 years to end the war
because Philip kept trying to invade France
from Flanders
• 1598 Henry and Phillip made peace
restoring the terms of 1559
• 1598 Henry issued the Edict of Nantes
declaring Catholicism the official religion of
France (nobles could practice Protestantism
in the privacy of their own houses)
• The French learned that a strong central
government was the only answer to national
problems - i.e. Absolute monarchy
REVOLT IN THE
NETHERLANDS
• Mid-sixteenth century Netherlands was very
different from either France or Spain
• 17 autonomous provinces, the most important
being Flanders, Brabant, and Holland
• Antwerp was the largest city and chief financial
center of western Europe
• 1506-1556 HRE Charles V was the ruler of the
Low Countries
• Control of the country was handled by the StateGeneral with delegates from each province
• The Low Countries was also a popular place for
Protestants and religious toleration- Erasmus
• Phillip II inherited the dukedom of Burgundy in
1556
• Phillip tried to introduce Spanish politics and
religion to the Low Countries and encountered
stiff resistance
• He personally disliked the Low Countries and
never visited after 1559
• Phillip did all he could to eradicate Calvinism
• Between 1560 and 1600 the Low Countries split
to create Belgium and Holland
• William of Orange and the counts Egmont and
Horn tried to persuade Phillip to alter his
policies
• 1566 lesser nobles asked Phillip to stop the
Inquisition
• Phillip refused - Calvinist fury shocked the Low
countries
Habsburg Empire 1560
• By 1560, Calvinism was a
strong, militant minority
in most of the cities in the
Netherlands.
• Lutheranism had posed
no serious threat to
Spanish rule.
• Calvinism is what worried
the Spaniards.
(John Calvin)
• The Netherlands were
slit up into seventeen
provinces under
Spanish rule.
• These provinces
possessed a large
middle-class
population.
• Calvinism appealed to the middle
classes with an emphasis on any
form of labor well done.
• It took deep root among financiers in
Amsterdam and people in the
northern provinces.
• Working-class people were also
converted, partly because their
employers would hire only other
Calvinists.
• In 1559 Philip II appointed
his half-sister, Margaret as
regent of the Netherlands.
• She pushed Philip’s orders to
wipe out Protestantism.
• She introduced the
Inquisition.
• Charles V had steadily
increased taxes in the Low
Countries
• When Margaret raised
taxes even more, fanatical
Calvinists, mostly from
the poor class, went on a
rampage.
• On March 3, 1568, fifteen hundred men
were executed
• Even Margaret was sickened and
resigned
• For 10 years, civil war raged in the
Netherlands between Catholics and
Protestants and between the seventeen
provinces and Spain
• In 1576, the 17 provinces united under
the leadership of Prince William of
Orange
• Philip II then sent his
nephew, Alexander
Farnese, duke of
Parma, to make the
revolt come to an end.
• Farnese arrived with
an army of German
mercenaries, a great
knowledge of the
geography, and a
perfect plan
• Many cities in the south fell,
including Bruges and Ghent
• And finally Antwerp fell, the
financial capital of northern Europe
• Calvinism was forbidden in these
areas and Protestants had to either
convert or leave
• The ten southern provinces
remained under the control of the
Spanish Habsburgs
• The seven northern provinces were
led by Holland and formed the
Union of Utrecht
• In 1581 the provinces declared their
independence from Spain and
formed the United Provinces of the
Netherlands.
• Philip II considered himself the
international defender of
Catholicism and did not want these
provinces to become independent.
• England had allied
with the new seven
provinces because if
they were defeated,
they knew that they
would be next
• Elizabeth put £250,000
and 2,000 troops into
the Low Countries.
• Philip prepared his vast fleet of ships
to sail from Lisbon to Flanders, fight
off Elizabeth’s navy if necessary, and
escort his barges across the English
Channel.
Robert Harding Picture Library
‘la felicissima armada’
• In 1588 an armada of
150 ships was
constructed.
• Most of the ships were
Spanish but some were
from Portugal and
Naples.
• It was the largest fleet
ever seen in Europe.
• Once the armada joined
forces with the Duke of
Parma, they would
invade England.
• After the invasion
England would be
brought under Spanish
Catholic rule.
• May 9 1588, led by
the Duke of Medina
Sidonia, the armada
arrived at English
Channel and they
solidified a crescent
formation.
• The strict formation
would be hard for the
English to break.
• However, the English had superior ships,
designed by John Hawkins, that were
faster and carried more weaponry.
• The English intended to sail around the
armada and destroy any stragglers.
• The armada
pushed forward
and anchored at
Calais.
• That night the
English sent in fire
ships to scatter the
armada.
• The aid expected from the Duke of Parma
never arrived.
• Without any support the armada was forced to
spend too much time in the Channel.
• It was not the English that defeated the Spanish
but a violent storm.
• The Spanish couldn’t find any safe harbors
and many men starved as the wrecked ships
limped back to Spain
• This defeat prevented Philip II from
re-imposing unity on western
Europe
• England was never conquered and
the Netherlands borders remained
the same
• Charles recruited army from nobility (Cavaliers)
• Parliament recruited an army (Roundheads)
• The English Civil War (1642-6) did not resolve
the problem of who would hold the power
• King held the initial advantage
• 1642 Charles marched to London to end the war
• At the Battle of Edgehill Charles won an expensive
victory
• The battle was watched by Oliver Cromwell
• Cromwell raised his own “New Model Army”
• Enforcing rigid discipline and religious zeal he became
the most successful Parliamentary leader
• 1643 the king looked like being successful
• The Battle of Newbury was a draw but the king suffered
great losses
• Parliament asked Scotland for an alliance
• Charles sought an alliance with the Irish
• 1644 the Scots entered England and marched on
the Cavalier army at York
• 1644 at Marston Moor the royalist were badly
defeated and their hold on the north was released
• 1645 at Naseby the king was finally defeated
• 1646 Charles surrendered to the Scots
• 1649-1660 is the “Interregnum” or Puritan
Commonwealth
• Theoretically, power rested with parliament
• Col Pride excluded 140 Presbyterian members of
Parliament from entering and admitted only 50-60
Independents
• Rump Parliament
• 1649 King Charles found guilty of treason
• 1649 the office of the king and the House of Lords
abolished
• The army controlled Parliament, Cromwell controlled
the “New Model Army”
• “Protectorate” Cromwell’s rule was a military
dictatorship
• 1653 Cromwell took control of Parliament i.e. the
House of Commons
• 140 Puritan leaders were appointed – this was the
Barebones Parliament
• Dec 1653 the Barebones
Parliament is over
• 1653-9 The Protectorate
• Three groups evolved:
a) Presbyterians - associated with the Church of
England and Calvin
b) Independents - rejected a compulsory church
c) Radical Puritans
i. Fifth Monarchy - waiting for the second coming of
Christ
ii. Levellers - universal male suffrage, guarantees of
popular sovereignty
iii. Diggers - agrarian communists against private
property
• Cromwell:
a) divided the country into 12 military districts
b) The Instrument of Government gave religious
freedom to all, except Catholics
c) crushed rebellions in Ireland – Wexford and
Drogheda
d) enforced the Navigation Acts (English goods English ships)
which led to Anglo-Dutch Wars
e) welcomed Jews
• The state:
a) censored the press
b) forbade sport
c) closed the theaters
• Cromwell was an absolutist - died 1658
• Richard Cromwell was a poor leader
• General Monck returned from Scotland
and recalled the Long Parliament
• He then forced Parliament to dissolve
itself
• The new Parliament of 1660 invited
Charles II to return as king
The Restoration - 1660
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Reestablished the monarchy - Charles II
Both houses of Parliament were restored
Law courts restored
New Triennial Act
Failed in two areas
• What was the attitude of the state towards
Puritans, Catholics, and dissenters?
• What was the relationship between king and
Parliament?
Test Act of 1673
• To enforce religious conformity those
who refused to receive the sacraments of
the Church of England:
a) could not vote
b) hold public office
c) preach or teach
d) attend university
e) assemble for meetings
CABAL
• 5 advisors appointed by the king, also members
of Parliament:
Clifford; Arlington; Buckingham; AshleyCooper; Lauderdale
• Gave rise to ministerial responsibilities
• Parliament did not give Charles enough money
to rule - but acknowledged his divine right
• For £200,000, (742,000 total) Charles agrees to:
a) relax laws against Catholics
b) re-catholicize England
c) support France against the Dutch policies
d) convert to Catholicism
• The people feared:
a) a Catholic dynasty
b) hated Louis XIV and absolutism
c) hated Catholicism
• The Commons passed a bill excluded Catholics for the
throne
• Charles dissolved Parliament - the bill never passed
Glorious Revolution
• Charles II was made king with the same
conditions as before the civil war
• 1660s saw England develop mercantilist
policies - especially with overseas trade
• The Navigation Acts increased British
trade and hurt the Dutch
• 1652-4 Three Anglo-Dutch Wars severely
hurt the Dutch
• Charles II preferred Catholicism
• Secretly he promised to help Louis XIV (cousin)
make England Catholic for a loan
• Charles had no children so his brother James II
succeeded him
• James appointed Catholics to high positions contrary to the Test Act
• James suspended the law at will and England
feared absolutism
Charles I
Charles II
Mary
James II
m. William of Orange
William
III
Mary II Anne
William III + Mary
• He also declared religious
freedom for all
• Two events signaled
revolution
i) seven bishops were
arrested for not
complying with the
Declaration of Indulgence
ii) James’s second wife
produced a male heir
Wealthy English men offered the throne to
James’s Protestant daughter Mary and
William
Triumph of Government
• The “Glorious Revolution” had very little
blood and was the end of divine-right
monarchy in England
• William and Mary accepted the throne
but recognized the supremacy of
Parliament
• The rights of the people were listed in the
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights
• Laws were made by parliament and could not be
suspended by the Crown
• Parliament had to be called at least every 3 years
• The Crown would not interfere with Parliament
• Judges would be independent
• No standing army in peace time
• English monarch must be Protestant
• Freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters
• Feb 13, 1688, the Declaration of
Rights was accepted and
proclaimed by William and Mary.
Declaration had three main parts:
1. an indictment of James II and
his transgressions,
2. a declaration of the rights of
citizens.
3. William and Mary declared
King and Queen of England, with
William to exercise all power
during his lifetime.
John Locke
• Second Treatise of Civil Government defended the
revolution:
a) People set up governments to protect life, liberty, and
property
b) If government oversteps the bounds then it is
tyranny, people have a natural right to revolt
• The revolution was not democratic
• Sovereignty rested with Parliament
• Parliament reflected the Upper Class
• Created a constitutional monarchy - the age of
aristocratic government