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Avery Gardner
Dr. McClanahan
CMST 250
26 April 2011
Social Information Processing Theory
Over the last decade, we have seen our lives are being brought online. While critics would argue that this has made our lives far more impersonal than ever before, Joe Walther, the founder of the social information processing theory (SIPT) would say that it is quite the contrary
(Griffin 139). Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has replaced a portion of face-to-face communication (F2F) in all aspects our society. The SIPT explains that given enough time, people are able form strong bonds through CMC just as well as they would through F2F communication (Thompson 46).
My parents are old-fashioned. From the moment they found out what a “chatroom” was, they warned me of its dangers, and did everything in their power to keep me away from them.
Throughout my high school career, they routinely checked my Myspace and Facebook profiles to make sure that I was not talking to anyone who could be dangerous. When my friends in high school and college began telling me of their online adventures and relationships, I encouraged them to end it, as I feared all of the things my parents warned me about. I was convinced they had all lost their minds, as they honestly believed that those relationships would really work beyond friend request and late night instant message conversations. Last year, I found out my aunt joined a popular dating website and actually felt chemistry with a man she had met.

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Although I was happy for her, I could not help but to wonder, “Could my aunt really know someone she has never met in person?” The idea was baffling to me. However, after briefly studying the social information processing theory, I saw that I might have been too judgmental.
Maybe, online relationships are not as ludicrous as my parents made them out to be. In fact, in many instances, they are far more fascinating. With a new way for people to connect online appearing every week, the social information processing theory is extremely relevant to my generation, and today’s society. Therefore, it is a theory that deserves further exploration and study.
In 1992, Joe Walther’s SIPT was developed to explain that all “relationships grow only to the extent that parties first gain information about each other and use that information to form impressions” (McClanahan, 3/15/2011). In this theory, Walther recognized the absence of nonverbal cues and the difference in the rate of response in CMC, but suggested that these two things assist rather than hinder the formation of a solid relationship (Griffin 139). Receivers of a message will generally get the emotion that the sender is trying to convey through means of explicit statements (McClanahan, 3/15/2011). Also, Walther points out that a relationship through CMC forms just as well as F2F, it just takes four times longer (McClanahan, 3/15/2011).
Extended time helps develop a relationship by allowing both parties to think about their responses, reply at a convenient time, and have impression management (Griffin 147).
One popular aspect of Walther’s SIPT is the hyperpersonal perspective. In this perspective, Walther explains four media effects that make CMC relationships more intimate than physical, F2F relationships (McClanahan, 3/15/2011). 1) Walther says that the sender selects the information they he or she wants to reveal about him/herself in order to make a desired impression (Griffin 144). 2) The receiver of the message makes assumptions based on

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3 the information he/she is given in order to make an “idealized image of the sender” (Griffin 145).
3) Walther says that CMC happens through asynchronous channels, meaning that parties can respond and read messages on their own time instead of having the pressure to respond at a time that is convenient for the other person. These asynchronous channels also allow parties to respond in a way they feel is most favorable to his/her image. 4) Lastly, during the feedback stage, the expectation of one person, allows the other to act accordingly in what is called a selffulfilling prophecy (Griffin 147).
SIPT dismisses theories such as the social presence theory and media richness theory.
Both generally explain that CMC does not allow parties to fully understand and get to know each other as well as the would through F2F communication due to limited communication (Griffin
138). Instead, SIPT upholds the uncertainty reduction theory and the social penetration theory by suggesting that the willingness of both parties to be honest and open while exchanging information through CMC allows for relationships to form just as well as they would through
F2F communication. SIPT explains that relationships through CMC involve the exchange of interpersonal information, then through impression formation, and finally relationship development (Griffin 139). This is all done without the having to worry about all of the things that make F2F communication relationships hard to develop, such as, physical appearance, awkward pauses in conversation, and small talk (McClanahan, 3/15/2011).
To understand SIPT is to understand that CMC still satisfies the human need for affiliation and leads to genuine relationships (Griffin 148). The social information processing theory is important to study because CMC is almost impossible to avoid in today’s society. The following six academic articles take a closer looks at SIPT and its impact and importance in our

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4 world. Each article offers a unique approach, yielding very different results about very different issues.
“Managing Impressions Online: Self-Presentation Processes in the Online Dating
Environment,” is a qualitative study that explores how people present themselves online to develop a romantic relationship (Ellison, Heino, and Gibbs, 415). The study was conducted by interviewing 34 members of a popular dating website about their “experiences, thoughts, and behaviors” on the site. The interviews lasted about 45 minutes each and consisted of open-ended questions that would reflect the users’ genuine thoughts and uses of the online dating service
(Ellison, Heino, and Gibbs, 422). The results showed that almost all users relied heavily on their individual profiles to create the initial idealized self-presentation. Users carefully picked their profile pictures and created mini-autobiographies that showed how all of their best attributes.
They also mentioned how small cues are crucial in their selection of an online dating partner.
Small mistakes such as misspelling a word or improper sentence structure was seen as
“uneducated” and “unattractive (Ellison, Heino, and Gibbs 424).”
A major flaw of the study was its sample. Only 34 people from California, all members of the same dating website participated. The problem with this is that online dating is worldwide and thousands of online dating websites are used every day. Ellison and her colleagues found this to be a significant limitation as well (Ellison, Heino, and Gibbs 433). Also, although a qualitative method was necessary for such research, the researchers needed to narrow down some of the information. In many instances, the researchers provided a phenomenon or proposal based of the answer of one participant. For example, there was a page-long tangent about the “foggy mirror” phenomenon in which one user described how people do not see themselves as others do when presenting themselves online (Ellison, Heino, and Gibbs, 428). The comment of one person in

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5 the study such as this should not be enough to create another theory. Although such information was lengthy and seemingly unnecessary, it did leave room for future researchers to expand and study further. Aside for such verbose language, the article was well written as easy to follow.
Blair Thompson and his research team used the social information processing theory to further explore the relationships parents and teachers build through CMC in their article,
“Applying Social Information Processing Theory to Parent-Teacher Relationships”. The researchers wanted to answer two important questions by the end of their study: 1) “How, if at all, do parents and teacher construct relationships via e-mail?” 2) “How do parents and teacher adapt their communication in CMC to develop relational communication (Thompson 46)?” 30 teachers and 20 Parents from 13 different schools agreed to allow researchers to access e-mail messages and conduct interviews (Thompson 49). Researchers looked for patterns and recurring issues and information using a comparative and qualitative method. The SIPT was then used to analyze and explain the content of the transcripts (Thompson 48).
The results showed that far less interpersonal relationships developed between parents and teachers than previous studies and researchers suggested. In fact, the development of an interpersonal relationship through CMC was contingent on many factors including extended communication, developed interpersonal impressions, goals, and content. The second question, of how teachers and parents adapt their communication was answered with the recurrence of linguistic, verbal, and textual manipulations. Parents and teachers alike used extra letters, emoticons, exaggerated punctuation, disclaimers, capital letters, and underlined, bold, or italicized words to show emotion, make a point, and convey a particular attitude (Thompson 59-
61). The findings support the SIPT since the e-mail messages showed that interpersonal

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6 relationships are possible through CMC if done frequently and with the proper content, even if it does take longer than FTF communication (Thompson 51).
The article was well organized and easy to follow. The language of was professional while remaining straightforward. In most cases, just enough information was provided to explain each component of the research. The most helpful and interesting part of the article was the direct quotes from the participants. The quotes were used to show how the researchers drew their conclusions. It allowed me to feel that there was validity in the information, instead of the results being manipulated in order to fit with the SIPT.
In “When Online Meets Offline: The Effect of Modality Switching on Relational
Communication,” researchers Artemio Ramirez Jr., and Shuangyue Zhang used the social information processing theory to explore how using FTF communication and CMC impacts relationships. The researchers hypothesized that introducing FTF communication would complicate CMC relationships. They believed this would occur because parties will have to learn about the real person, regardless of the person that they had idealized through CMC (Ramirez,
Zhang 288-289).
864 participants were participated in the study. They were each given a random person to talk to through CMC. At varying lengths of time, each participant had to meet the other person
FTF. Qualitative data was collected with a Likert scale at the end of a month to see how well participants felt they got to know the other person, as well as if the person met his/her expectations (Ramirez, Zhang 295-297). The results found that the sooner FTF communication was introduced, the smaller its effect was had on the relationship. The same amount of information was collected, as there would have been in CMC. There was however, a decrease in

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7 intimacy and future relationship potential. Another finding was that when FTF communication was introduced later into a CMC relationship, it hindered the relationship because it conflicted with the idealized images both parties had created (Ramirez, Zhang 300-305).
The article provided adequate background information about its purpose and the social information processing theory. The process was broken down enough to be understood even though it was an intricate study. The researchers also concluded the article with information explaining why it made sense, even though it did not exactly match their original hypotheses.
Overall, the article was well written and provided a great base for other researchers.
In “High-Speed Internet Access to the Other: The Influence of Cultural Orientations on
Self-Disclosures in Offline and Online Relationships”, researcher Rober S. Tokunanga sought to discover how individuals from different cultures connect with each other in FTF versus CMC communication. Tokunanga theorized that it is difficult enough for individuals to get to know each other FTF; so developing a relationship through CMC would be even harder with the absence of small cues (Tokunanga 132-134). Tokunanga asked his 67 participants to complete a survey that discussed recent conversations that they had with a person they talk to FTF and a person that they talk to through CMC. The intercultural FTF and CMC relationships were asked to be at the same stage of relational stage in development. The data was collected to see in which relationships participants were more willing to participate in self-disclosure (Tokunanga 139).
The findings showed that most of the participants were individualistic, an idea consistent with United States’ citizens. These participants were more likely to trust members that they communicated with via CMC. They were high in self-disclosure (Tokunanga 137). In FTF communication, these individuals displayed a lot of information, but not as in-depth or intimate

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8 as they did to their CMC partners. This showed that individualism. This sparked a new idea that although the individualist, American participants answered in ways consistent with the social information processing theory, that the theory may only be limited to similar societies.
Collectivists cultures like those of Korea, Tokunaga suggest, are not as trusting and may not build relationships through CMC as well as American individualist do (Tokunanga 138).
Tokunaga was difficult to follow and the research was not very conclusive. Sentences were interrupted by graphs and ideas were scattered (Tokunanga 142). Some points in the article were often left unsupported, while others seemed loosely supported, such as his idea about Korea and Japan (Tokunanga 138). However, the idea to expand studies on social information processing theory to other countries and cultures surly opens a new path for future researchers.
Dmitri Williams, the researcher of the study titled, “Can You Hear Me Now? The Impact of Voice in an Online Gaming Community,” looked to find out how introducing voice communication in an online gaming community would impact relationships between its members. Williams hypothesized that introducing voice in a system only familiar with text-only communication would enhance CMC relationships because it becomes more like FTF communication (Williams, Caplan, and Xiong 427). Fifteen members of the online gaming community, World of Warcraft (WoW) participated in the study. Some were asked to use the voice and text to communicate with other members while others continued to just use the text
Participants were asked to continue to login and use the features for one month before reporting their results (Williams, Caplan, and Xiong 434).
In this field study, Williams used surveys to find that voice did have an impact on relationships. However, it did not affect them as much as he has expected. The voice feature did

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9 not create new or more diverse relationship. Instead, the voice feature increased the bond in current relationships. Participants also reported that they felt happier and less lonely by being able to talk to and hear their friends. Interestingly, users did not feel that they communicating with their friends in a less CMC driven way than they did by just using the text feature
(Williams, Caplan, and Xiong 438-439). The introduction to more CMC in this study showed consistency with the social information processing theory by demonstrating how well these types of relationships can be maintained.
This study was interesting because of its results. One would think that a voice feature would connect more people or make users feel more connected. Instead it just maintained already established relationships. The biggest flaw that I found in this article was the sample size. Although Williams made clear that 83% of participants were male, which reflective of the actual WoW demographic, I think a larger control group would have yielded different results.
This is an interesting study however, that would be more concrete if put on a larger scale.
In "Revisiting Interpersonal Media Competition: The Gratification Niches of Instant
Messaging, E-Mail, and the Telephone,” researchers explored how mediums such as landlines, cell phones, instant messages (IM), and e-mail meet the needs of their users (Ramirez, Dimmick,
Feaster, Lin 529). From a Midwestern university, 255 students were selected. They were given two surveys to complete in a week’s time. The first survey asked questions about demographics and the second used a Likert scale to ask how each of the foregoing mediums met their personal needs. Using a t-test, the statistical data was collected and compared (Ramirez, Dimmick,
Feaster, Lin 533-537). Results showed that the cell phone had the most benefits and satisfied the most needs because of all of its capabilities and its mobility. However, instant messaging was preferred because it has proved to be good for leisure and developing relationships through CMC

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10 than would not have occurred via FTF. IM being the most preferred for those reasons is consistent with the social information processing theory (Ramirez, Dimmick, Feaster, and Lin
538-542).
The study was difficult to follow. Too many times, the findings seemed to contradict, making it difficult for readers to figure out what piece of technology was superior to the students.
Once that information was understood, it made the article enjoyable. The t-test was informative and showed that legitimacy of they study (Ramirez, Dimmick, Feaster, and Lin 539). The researchers, Artermio Ramirez, John Dimmick, John Feaster, and Shu-Fang Lin gathered information that initially did not seem to involve the social information processing theory, but made then made it more relevant to readers.
“Managing Impressions Online: Self-Presentation Processes in the Online Dating
Environment,” “When Online Meets Offline: The Effect of Modality Switching on Relational
Communication,” and “Applying Social Information Processing Theory to Parent-Teacher
Relationships” best discussed SIPT. These three articles honed in on the most important aspect of the theory, that CMC relationships can equate to and/or surpass FTF relationships if given the time. In “Managing Impressions Online: Self-Presentation Processes in the Online Dating
Environment,” suggested senders take special care in presenting their ideal selves and that receivers generally believe it (Ellison, Heino, and Gibbs, 426). “When Online Meets Offline:
The Effect of Modality Switching on Relational Communication,” showed how biases and judgments gained in FTF communication hinder the formation of a relationship. Conversely, the idealized images and managed self-presentations enhanced intimate relationships. The study showed that the more people got to know each other through CMC, the more FTF communication dampened the relationship (Ramirez and Zhang 303). Finally, “Applying Social

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Information Processing Theory to Parent-Teacher Relationships,” showed that relationships via
CMC call for both parties to have the right intent, content, timing, and goals to reach a solid relationship (Thompson 51-53). Even though those relationships take longer to form, they are no weaker than those formed through FTF communication (Thompson 51).
Those articles that failed to present SIPT as well include, “High-Speed Internet Access to the Other: The Influence of Cultural Orientations on Self-Disclosures in Offline and Online
Relationships”,” “Can You Hear Me Now? The Impact of Voice in an Online Gaming
Community,” and “Revisiting Interpersonal Media Competition.” Although the studies were interesting, each of them seemed to try too hard to incorporate SIPT. It was difficult understand exactly how the theory was even applicable at times. “High-Speed Internet Access to the Other:
The Influence of Cultural Orientations on Self-Disclosures in Offline and Online Relationships” very briefly discussed how relationships developed better online where biases were eliminated.
However, a larger part of the article was spent discussing the ideas about collectivism and individualism (Tokunanga 133-137). Introducing those topics was necessary but it took away from the importance of the actual SIPT. In “Can You Hear Me Now? The Impact of voice in an
Online Gaming Community,” it was difficult to understand how the introduction of voice online helped the researchers to understand how SIPT deals with CMC versus FTF. The article talked about how CMC allows maintenance of relationships, but rarely mentioned anything other aspects of SIPT (Williams, Caplan and Xiong 431). Lastly, “Revisiting Interpersonal Media
Competition,” was the most difficult article to follow. It was interesting and had great test results to prove its validity but obviously dealt more the niche theory and similar theories than it did to
SIPT. The only true mention of SIPT in the article was when it proved to be consistent with the findings of IM and cellular devices (Ramirez, Dimmick, Feaster and Lin 540).

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Since the phenomenon of online relationships is relatively new, the lane for future research based on SIPT is endless. I would like to see SIPT explore online dating on a broader scale by studying more online dating members, from other areas and from different websites. Email should be explored between colleagues, employees and employers, and college student and professors. I am interested to see how relationships are impacted between subordinates and employers due to online memos and e-mails. Do formal and routine e-mails become more informal with time? Do these e-mails impact FTF encounters, and vice versa? In the article,
“High-Speed Internet Access to the Other: The Influence of Cultural Orientations on Self-
Disclosures in Offline and Online Relationships” a great point was brought up about studying online relationships in other cultures (Tokunaga 143). It is a mystery if SIPT is just limited to the
American culture or if it extends to other cultures as well. Additionally, Walther originally suggested that CMC takes about four times longer to develop. However, it seems that time goes on, people become more accustomed to online relationships, and they seem to develop rather quickly. The time that it takes for CMC relationships to develop now should again be explored to see if there is a significant change. Future researchers have a lot of great information from which they can elaborate. To improve studies that have already been conducted, they should collect more random samples and involve more participants. That seemed to have been the reoccurring flaw in many of the articles that I reviewed. As technology grows, so does SIPT research and exploration.
SIPT is a multi-faceted theory, to say the least. Each of the articles aforementioned directly or indirectly related to the new theory. In our society, we are in some way impacted by
CMC every single day. CMC has become inescapable. Even my parents’ fears have subsided as they have taken a liking to online banking and e-mail. Again, I ask myself, “Could my aunt

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13 really know someone she has never met in person?” After understanding the theory and studying the articles, the answer is less baffling. Yes, both F2F and CMC relationships “end up with the same quantity and quality of interpersonal knowledge, but it [CMC] accumulates at a slower rate” (Griffin 140). Research and studies for SIPT have only just begun. As our lives and interpersonal relationships continue to develop online, the need to study and understand the social information processing theory is more crucial than ever.

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Works Cited
Ellison, Nicole, Rebecca Heino, and Jennifer Gibbs. "Managing Impressions Online: Self-
Presentation Processes in the Online Dating Environment." Journal of Computer-
Mediated Communication 11.2 (2006): 415-441. Communication & Mass Media
Complete . EBSCO. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.
Griffin, Em. "Social Information Processing Theory." A First Look at Communication Theory .
Ed. Michael Ryan. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 138-50. Print.
Lin Shu-Fang, et al. "Revisiting Interpersonal Media Competition: The Gratification Niches of
Instant Messaging, E-Mail, and the Telephone." Communication Research 35.4 (2008):
529-547. Communication & Mass Media Complete . EBSCO. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.
McClanahan, A. (15 Mar. 2011). Social Information Processing Theory. Theories of Human
Communication . Fine Arts 100 (East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania, East
Stroudsburg, PA).
Ramirez, Artemio, and Shuangyue Zhang. "When Online Meets Offline: The Effect of Modality
Switching on Relational Communication." Communication Monographs 74.3 (2007):
287-310. Communication & Mass Media Complete . EBSCO. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.
Tokunaga, Robert S. "High-Speed Internet Access to the Other: The Influence of Cultural
Orientations on Self-Disclosures in Offline and Online Relationships." Journal of

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Intercultural Communication Research 38.3 (2009): 133-147. Communication & Mass
Media Complete.
EBSCO. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.
Thompson, Blair. "Applying Social Information Processing Theory to Parent-Teacher
Relationships." RCA Vestnik (Russian Communication Association) (2008): 45-65.
Communication & Mass Media Complete.
EBSCO. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.
Williams, Dmitri, Scott Caplan, and Li Xiong. "Can You Hear Me Now? The Impact of Voice in an Online Gaming Community." Human Communication Research 33.4 (2007): 427-449.
Communication & Mass Media Complete . EBSCO. Web. 4 Apr. 2011.