Personality
Personality
• What is personality?
• Theories of Personality
– Psychodynamic (Freud)
– Humanistic (Rogers)
– Trait
• Personality Testing and Uses
• Evaluation of both personality theories and
personality testing
Some definitions:
• Personality, temperament, mood and character all
have different definitions
• Temperament is the way in which we react to
different situations. It is thought to be genetic. You
can be described as hot-tempered or mild-tempered.
• Mood refers to a short-lived state related to how we
feel at a particular moment in time. Mood can cause
you to act out of character.
• Character is closely related to personality. Its a
general description for the sum of all of your traits.
E.g. A strong character
Defining Personality
• “ A relatively stable set of characteristics specific
to an individual that determine how that
individual acts and behaves”
• Every person has a unique personality; no two
people are the same
• 5 traits activity
• We need to remember that we do change our
behaviour with context. Our personality is
something that we can describe. It will explain
our behaviour in different contexts.
• For example, describe to me the way you behave around your
grandparents....
For example....
• The way you behave around your grandparents
and the way you behave around your friends is
likely to be very different. You respect your
grandparents and want to impress them. You
may mind your language and make polite
conversation. Maybe you only speak when
spoken to. Around your friends you are loud.
You tell your friends exactly what you are
thinking and feel free to interrupt them and
argue.
• Your behaviour in these different contexts
has changed but this does not mean your
personality has changed.
• Despite this change in behaviour, you are
more than likely able to make a list of
“traits” that you have. The sum of all of
these traits is your personality.
Nature vs. Nurture
• Do we have a personality gene or is
personality determined by the environment
we grew up in?
• If there is an interplay of both are genes or
the environment more influential?
Nature
• Studies have found a strong link between genetics
and personality. Identical twins raised in the same
home have more similar personalities that fraternal
twins raised in the same home.
• Identical twins raised in different homes also have
very similar personalities, almost just as similar as
identical twins raised in the same home.
• Although there appears to be a strong genetic link,
in none of the studies were the personalities of
identical twins exactly the same. As their genes are
exactly the same, this would suggest that there is
indeed an environment influence. Research
continues into this debate.
Theories of Personality
• We will look at three theories of
personality:
– Psychodynamic: personality is shaped by the
experiences of childhood
– Humanistic: we choose our own personality
– Trait: personality is genetic and we are born
with a particular personality
The
• Developed by Sigmund
Psychodynamic Freud
Theory of
• Claims that our
Personality
personality has three
components each with
their own agenda
• These three components
are known as:
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego
Id
• Driven by biological forces
• We experience discomfort when
Id is not satisfied i.e. feeling
hungry or thirsty
• Can cause tension when
biological urges are in conflict
with the other parts of
personality.
• Id works on the pleasure
principle. Id wants its urges met
now and pays no attention to any
consequences!
Ego
• Ego creates ways in which to
meet the demands of Id within
societal boundaries.
• The ego develops from the Id
during childhood.
• Ego works on the reality
principle. Ego tries to balance
the needs of Id with the needs of
Superego. Ego is the voice of
reason.
Superego
• Superego develops from
ego as a result of
learning and
socialisation.
• Superego works on the
morality principle. It uses
the morals that we have
learnt from our parents,
friends and teachers to
guide behaviour and
avoid guilt.
An example...
M.H. is a university student who is attracted to a girl he
sees occasionally at the recreation centre. His id
craves for immediate satisfaction (you know what I
mean) but this is opposed by his superego (which finds
reasons why he shouldn’t even be thinking about these
desires). The Id says “Go for it!”. The Superego replies
“Don’t even think about it!”. And what does the ego
say?
“I have a plan!”.
The Mind by Freud
• As well as proposing that personality was
made up of three components, Freud
described the mind as being made up of
three levels:
1. The conscious mind
2. The pre-conscious mind
3. The subconscious/unconscious mind
Three Levels of the Mind
• Level 1: The conscious mind contains feelings and thoughts
of which we are aware of at a particular point in time
• Level 2: The pre-conscious mind contains thoughts and
feelings that we are not aware of but can easily access when
required. These thoughts and feelings are said to be just
under the surface of our consciousness.
• Level 3: The unconscious mind is argued by Freud to be the
largest and most influential part of the mind. We are totally
unaware of the feelings and thoughts that reside here though
they may influence behaviour. Freud would further ague that
only a psychologist trained in psychoanalysis could access
these thoughts and feelings.
The Iceberg
• Freud suggested that
Id is found only in the
unconscious while Ego
and Superego can be
found on all levels.
• The iceberg analogy is
used to indicate that
most of the mind in
subconcious just as
most of an iceberg is
submerged.
Psychosexual Development
• Freud proposed that that way in which we resolve
issues between the different parts of our mind
develops during childhood and helps to shape
personality.
• During childhood we have to balance different
biological and environmental influences.
• A well-balanced personality is the result of
successfully moving through each stage.
• If a stage is not successfully completed, a fixation
with develop. A fixation is the attachment to a
behaviour or object later in life.
Evaluation of Freud’s Theory
• Was considered very contemporary because it was one
of the first theories that linked symptoms to an underlying
cause. Freud believed that rather than treat the
symptoms of his clients, he would try to uncover and treat
the underlying cause of their abnormal behaviour. This
was revolutionary in the field of psychology.
• Introduced the “talking cure” and psychotherapy from
which other psychological treatments have stemmed.
• Freud believed, unlike a lot of other physicians at the
time, that psychological problems were curable.
• However, his theories have no empirical evidence. His
theories are based on very small sample sizes of which
most participants were abnormal.
The Humanistic
Theory of
Personality
Developed by Carl
Rogers
“As I follow the experience of many
clients in the therapeutic relationship
which we endeavour to create for
them, it seems to me that each one
is raising the same question. Below
the level of the problem situation
about which the individual is
complaining behind the trouble with
studies or wife or employer, or with
his own uncontrollable or bizarre
behaviour, or with his frightening
feelings lies one central search. It
seems to me that at the bottom each
person is asking Who am I, really?
How can I get in touch with this real
self, underlying all my surface
behaviour? How can I become
myself? (Rogers, 1967, p. 108)
The Humanistic Theory of
Personality
• States that we all strive towards selfactualisation: personal growth, to be the
best we can be.
• A healthy personality is the result of a person
reaching their full potential- self-actualising
• Whether or not a person is able to selfactualise depends on three things: how
others treat them, how they view themself,
and how they deal with negative influences
The Humanistic Theory of
Personality
•Emphasises free will and choice
•Assumes the best of people’s intentionswe all strive to be good
•Describes a mentally healthy, well
adjusted person as someone who’s true
self and ideal self match.
•True self- the person that you are
•Ideal self- the person that you want to be
The Humanistic Theory of
Personality
• Conditions of worth are the views of others
that we use to evaluate ourselves.
• If we meet the expectations of others and
gain positive regard, we are balanced and
congruent.
• If however we do not meet others
expectations we experience incongruence.
How we define ourselves (our self-concept)
differs from other’s definitions and we
experience discomfort and unhappiness.
The Humanistic Theory of
Personality
• Rogers proposed that congruence was
important to personality growth.
• Also proposed that personality could not
be measured and there was no need for a
“personality profile”.
Evaluation of the Humanistic
Theory of Personality
• Self actualisation is not fully defined, when it
is defined it is very rare.
• There is no empirical evidence for the theory
• Has been said to be very naive in its claim
that all people strive to be good. Gives not
explanation for aggression and evil.
• Did however re-define the psychologist-client
relationship empowering the client and
creating a more positive relationship between
the psychologist and client.
Trait Theories
• Traits are behaviours common across
different situations
• Trait theories propose that groups of traits
add up to form a person’s personality
• These traits have a genetic basis
• Traits exist on a continuum with opposite
extremes
Eysenck
• Eysenck proposed that
personality is made up of
two traits: neuroticism (N)
and extraversion (E)
• Neuroticism: a tendency
towards negative emotions
• Extraversion: a tendency to
enjoy social situations
• He described these traits as
existing on a continuum
called dimensions. A person
can have either low or high
amounts of the trait.
Eysenck
• In 1954 added a third dimension psychoticism.
• People who score highly on psychoticism are toughminded and insensitive.
• People who score low on psychotocism are warm and
empathetic.
• Along with learning and prior experience personality
traits had a genetic basis.
• The nervous systems of intraverted and extraverted
people differed.
• Nervous systems of extraverts require more
stimulation and so extraverts seek extra stimulation
socially and physically.
Eysenck
• Maudesley Personality
Inventory (MPI)
measures N and E
• Eysenck Personality
Inventory (EPI)
measures N and E and
includes a lie scale
• Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (EPQ)
includes P. Has been
revised and EPQ-R is
used today.
• Gordon Allport, another trait
theorist, believed that most
traits fell within 7 categories
• Believed that each individual
has a unique set of traits and
that each trait could be
further classified as central,
secondary or cardinal.
• Believed that some traits
were common and others
were individual.
•Allport noticed that traits seemed to cluster together;
the presence of one trait seemed to predict the
presence of other traits.
Allport
Central Traits
•Most obvious
traits
•Most likely to
be the traits
that you and
others identify
Secondary
Traits
•Traits that are
not
demonstrated
all the time
•They appear
in response to
specific
situations
•These traits
can be
changed
Cardinal
Traits
•Very persistent
traits
•Motivate a lot
of a person’s
behaviour
•May determine
a person’s path
in life
•Not everyone
has cardinal
traits
Allport
• Allport is criticised for his belief that people
can possess individual traits. This goes
against the common view that everyone
has the same traits just to differing
degrees.
• His theory is also criticised for not
supporting the view that personality is
persistent in his suggestion that certain
traits only appear in certain situations.
Cattell
• Also believed as Allport did
that personality could be
described as a set of traits.
• Identified 16 pairs of traits
which he called “source traits”
• Also identified “surface traits”
which are observable traits that
when combined with other
similar traits make up the
source traits
• Created the Sixteen
Personality Factor
Questionnaire- 16PF which
produces a personality profile
Costa and McRae’s 5 Factor
Model
• Costa and McRae identified 5 factors that
they say make up personality
• 1. Openness to Experience
• 2. Conscientiousness
• 3. Extraversion
• 4. Agreeableness
• 5. Neuroticism
• Each of the above factors includes a broad
range of traits.
The “Big 5” Traits
Costa and McRae’s 5 Factor
Model
• Most accurate and current theory used to
describe (but not predict) behaviour and
personality
• Two personality tests:
– Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PIR)
– NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)
Testing Personality
• Two types of tests: Inventories and
Projective Tests
• We have already looked at many
inventories i.e. NEO-PI, 16PF, EPQ-R
Projective Tests
• Projective Tests: Rorschach Inkblots and
the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
• Work on the idea that completion of the
task reveals/projects a person’s
personality.
• Are ambiguous though and not
scientifically testable.
Personality Inventories
• Are valid- they measure personality- and
reliable- people score similar scores when
they resit the same test.
• In addition to the personality inventories
discussed so far two inventories are
commonly used, especially in the work place.
• These two inventories are the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator and the Holland’s Self
Directed Search.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI)
• Based on the theory of Carl Jung who
proposed that we all have different ways of
perceiving and dealing with our world.
Jung identified 4 dimensions.
• Has 93 items
• Participants choose one of two responses
but do not need to answer all questions.
Holland’s Self Directed Search
• Created by John Holland who worked to match
careers to personality types
• Believed that people could be categorized into 6
occupational types
• A career interest inventory consisting of 198
statements that participants respond “yes” or
“no” to
• Result of the inventory is a three letter code
(Holland code) which is the participants three
most prevalent occupational types.
Holland’s 6 Occupational Types
Holland’s Self Directed Search
• Once people have their Holland Code they
can search for appropriate careers.
Personality Testing
• Note that there is no one personality test
that adequately measures personality.
Instead, a psychologist will administer a
“battery” of tests and use the results to
form an overall picture of a person’s
pesonality.
Correlation
• Correation Co-efficient: A number between
1 and 0 that represents the direction and
strength of the correlation of two variables
• A + value indicates a positive correlation
• A – value indicates a negative correlation
• A value between 1 and 0.7 is strong
• A value between 0.5 and 0.3 is moderate
• A value less than 0.2 is weak.